Brooke Martin
Candles have been used for over two millennia, originally as a significant form of indoor lighting. They are typically made from wax, or another flammable solid, with an embedded wick, and are used for functional, symbolic, and aesthetic purposes. In the 19th century, improvements were made to the wick, making it self-trimming or self-consuming. Today, candles are mostly used for their scent and to create a certain ambiance, or in specific cultural and religious settings. However, burning candles can produce carbon dioxide and water vapour, and constant exposure to the particles in candle smoke can lead to cardiovascular and respiratory issues. So, are candles alive?
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | An ignitable wick embedded in wax or another flammable solid substance such as tallow that provides light, heat, fragrance, or a method of keeping time. |
| Composition | Wax, which is composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms. The wick is usually made of cotton. |
| Variants | Candles can be made from paraffin wax, microcrystalline wax, beeswax, gel (a mixture of polymer and mineral oil), or plant waxes (palm, carnauba, bayberry, or soybean wax). |
| Use Cases | Candles are used for functional, symbolic, and aesthetic purposes, as well as in cultural and religious settings. They are also used for ceremonies, vigils, and birthday celebrations. |
| Burning Time | Candles are not considered safe to burn for more than 3-4 hours at a time. |
| Safety | Burning candles produce carbon dioxide and water vapour, which can be dangerous in high concentrations. They also emit particles that can contribute to indoor air pollution and cause respiratory issues. |
| History | Candles have been used for over two millennia worldwide and were once a significant form of indoor lighting before the invention of electric lighting. |
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What You'll Learn
Candle composition
A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax or another flammable solid substance. The composition of a candle has two main components: the wick and the wax.
Candle Wicks
Candle wicks are made from cotton and are braided. The size of the flame and the corresponding rate of burning are controlled by the candle wick. In the 19th century, a French man named M. Cambacérès introduced the plaited wick soaked in mineral salts, which curled towards the outer edge of the flame and became incinerated by it, thereby trimming itself. These are referred to as "self-trimming" or "self-consuming" wicks.
Candle Wax
All waxes are primarily hydrocarbons, composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms. Waxes are solid at room temperature and liquid at higher temperatures. They are also water-repellent and insoluble. The chemical composition of all waxes used for candle-making is similar, and all candle waxes burn in the same manner.
Over the centuries, candle waxes have been developed from a variety of fats, oils, and waxy substances derived from animals, insects, plants, and rocks. Before the 19th century, a "wax" candle typically referred to a beeswax candle. Today, most candles are made from paraffin wax, a byproduct of petroleum refining. Other types of waxes used for candle-making include microcrystalline wax, beeswax, gel (a mixture of polymer and mineral oil), and some plant waxes (such as palm, carnauba, bayberry, or soybean wax). The type of wax affects the burn rate, with beeswax and coconut wax burning longer than paraffin or soy wax.
Candle Additives
Candles may also contain additives such as fragrances and colourants to enhance their aesthetic appeal. However, the burning of candles can release ultrafine particles, larger accumulation mode particles, and indoor pollutants such as Elemental Carbon (EC) and PM2.5. The emission factors of these particles depend on the type of wax and the burning conditions.
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The burning process
The vaporized wax molecules then react with oxygen from the air, creating heat, light, water vapour, and carbon dioxide. This combustion process stabilizes after a few minutes, and the flame burns cleanly and steadily, giving off carbon dioxide and water vapour. The heat from the flame also causes the nearby air to rise, creating a convection current that gives the flame its teardrop shape. The hotter the flame, the faster the wax burns, and the quicker the candle burns down.
The candle flame itself has several distinct zones, each with its own characteristics. The base of the flame is blue, oxygen-rich, and the hottest part of the flame, reaching temperatures of up to 1400°C. This is where hydrocarbon molecules vaporize and break down into hydrogen and carbon atoms. The hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water vapour, while some of the carbon burns to form carbon dioxide.
Above the blue zone is a small dark orange-brown section, with relatively less oxygen. Here, the various forms of carbon continue to break down, and small, hardened carbon particles (soot) begin to form. These particles are heated to approximately 1000°C as they rise, and at the bottom of the yellow zone, the formation of soot particles increases. The yellow region is the part of the flame that the human eye perceives due to the dominance of the yellow portion of the spectrum when the carbon ignites.
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Historical usage
Candles have been used for over two millennia, and were a significant form of indoor lighting until the invention of other light sources. They are thought to have originated in Ancient Egypt, where the core of the rush plant was soaked in melted animal fat or grease to create rushlights, an early form of contained light. In China, textual evidence suggests that candles may have been made from whale fat during the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), and the word 'zhú' was used for 'candle' during the Warring States period (403–221 BCE). Objects that could be candle holders have been found in Babylonian and middle Minoan cultures, as well as in the tomb of Tutankhamun.
In the Roman period, candles were made by wrapping papyrus around twine and dipping it into tallow, a form of beef or mutton fat. Many other early civilisations also created wicked candles using waxes made from local plants. The Chinese, for example, used rolled rice paper as wicks, while tribes in Alaska and Canada used the oily eulachon fish as a candle. In India, wax was made by boiling the fruit of the cinnamon tree, and in Japan, wax was extracted from tree nuts.
During the Middle Ages, a significant improvement was made in Europe with the introduction of beeswax candles. Unlike tallow, beeswax burned cleanly and emitted a pleasant smell. However, beeswax candles were expensive and their use was limited to churches and the elite. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the growth of the whaling industry brought another major change to candlemaking, with the introduction of spermaceti, a wax derived from sperm whale oil. Spermaceti burned brighter and was harder than tallow or beeswax, so it wouldn't melt in warm weather. In the 1820s, French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul discovered how to extract stearic acid from animal fatty acids, leading to the development of stearin wax, which was hard, durable, and burned cleanly. The 19th century also saw the introduction of large-scale industrial manufacturing techniques for the mass production of candles.
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Safety considerations
Candles are a source of light, heat, and fragrance, and have been used for over two millennia. They are still commonly used for functional, symbolic, and aesthetic purposes, as well as in cultural and religious settings. However, despite their many uses, candles pose a potential fire risk if not handled properly. Here are some safety considerations to keep in mind when using candles:
- Never leave a burning candle unattended: It is important to always keep a burning candle within your line of sight. This way, you can quickly address any potential hazards, such as the candle accidentally catching something on fire.
- Keep candles away from flammable objects: Place candles at least three inches apart from each other and away from any flammable materials, such as furniture, curtains, paper, and other items that could easily catch fire.
- Keep candles out of reach of children and pets: Ensure that candles are placed in a location that cannot be easily accessed by children or pets. This helps prevent accidental knocks or contact with the flame.
- Use proper candleholders: Always use a candleholder specifically designed for candle use. It should be heat-resistant, sturdy, and large enough to contain any drips or melted wax.
- Trim the wick: Before lighting a candle, trim the wick to approximately 1/4 inch. This helps prevent uneven burning, dripping, or flaring, and reduces the risk of the flame becoming too large.
- Avoid drafts: Keep candles away from windows, vents, or air currents. Drafts can cause rapid or uneven burning, sooting, and excessive dripping. They can also carry a flame, causing surrounding items to catch fire.
- Do not burn a candle all the way down: Discontinue burning a candle when 1/2 inch of wax remains in the container or 2 inches if using a pillar candle. This helps prevent the candle from overheating and reduces the risk of fire.
- Extinguish candles properly: Use a candle snuffer or lid to suffocate the flame safely. Do not use water or other liquids to extinguish the flame, as this can cause hot wax to splatter.
- Ventilate the room after use: Candles consume oxygen and produce humidity. Briefly ventilate the room after extinguishing a candle to refresh the air. However, avoid ventilating while the candle is still burning, as drafts can be dangerous.
- Follow manufacturer's instructions: Always read and follow the safety instructions provided by the candle manufacturer. These instructions are included to ensure the safe use of their products.
By following these safety considerations, you can help prevent accidents and enjoy your candles safely.
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Air quality impacts
Candles are made from wax and a wick, and when lit, the heat of the flame melts the wax near the wick. This liquid wax is drawn up the wick and vaporises, breaking down into molecules of hydrogen and carbon. These molecules react with oxygen in the air to create heat, light, water vapour, and carbon dioxide.
While candles are not "alive" in the biological sense, they do undergo chemical changes and release various substances into the air, which can impact air quality and, in some cases, human health.
Burning candles release hydrocarbons, specifically hydrogen and carbon, into the air. This process is called combustion. While the amount released is not considered to pose a significant health risk to most people, certain candles may release higher levels of emissions and pollutants, particularly paraffin wax candles. Paraffin wax is derived from petroleum, and burning it releases toxins such as benzene, toluene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and acrolein, as well as soot. These emissions are similar to those produced by burning diesel fuel.
Scented candles can be even more problematic for air quality, as they introduce additional chemicals and fragrances into the air. The type of wick can also impact air quality, with wicks that char instead of burning completely potentially producing black smoke.
To minimise the impact of candles on indoor air quality, it is recommended to use alternative waxes such as beeswax or soy, which burn cleaner and produce less soot. Additionally, ensuring proper ventilation and using air filters or purifiers can help mitigate the effects of candle emissions. Burning candles for shorter periods and trimming wicks before lighting can also reduce the impact on air quality.
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Frequently asked questions
No, candles are not alive. They are made of wax, which is a combination of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Candles are made of wax, an ignitable wick embedded in wax, or another flammable solid substance such as tallow.
When a candle burns, the flame heats the nearby air and starts to rise. As the warm air moves up, cooler air and oxygen rush in at the bottom of the flame to replace it. This creates a teardrop shape due to the convection current.
Candles are not safe to burn for more than 3-4 hours at a time. It is recommended to use them in intervals and only when someone is in the room to monitor them.
Some alternatives to candles include oil lamps, electric lighting, or scented diffusers and room sprays.
