Ben Carter
Candles are made from wax, which is a hydrocarbon. When a candle burns, the heat of the flame vaporizes the liquid wax, breaking down the hydrocarbons into molecules of hydrogen and carbon. These molecules react with oxygen from the air to create heat, light, water vapour, and carbon dioxide. The chemical composition of candle wax influences its combustion behaviour and the colour of its flame. So, are candles ionic or molecular?
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What You'll Learn
Candle wax is covalent
Hydrocarbons are molecules that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms. In candle wax, these hydrocarbons are typically long chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbon atoms. The carbon-carbon bonds and carbon-hydrogen bonds in these molecules are covalent bonds, which are formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.
The specific type of wax used in candle-making can vary, including paraffin, beeswax, soy wax, palm wax, gels, and synthesized waxes. Ancient civilizations such as the Ancient Egyptians and Early Romans used tallow derived from animals as a source of wax. Other sources of wax throughout history include beeswax, which was used in China as early as the Tang Dynasty, and tree nut extracts, which were used in early Japan.
When a candle is lit, the heat of the flame vaporizes the liquid wax, breaking down the hydrocarbon molecules into individual hydrogen and carbon atoms. These vaporized molecules react with oxygen from the air, creating heat, light, water vapor (H2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2). The carbon atoms may also form soot, which is visible as the dark orange-brown region above the blue base of the candle flame.
The combustion of candle wax involves the breaking and forming of covalent bonds. The carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds in the wax are broken during combustion, releasing energy. New covalent bonds are formed as the hydrogen and carbon atoms react with oxygen to form water and carbon dioxide, respectively.
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Waxes are hydrocarbons
Candles are made of all kinds of waxes, including beeswax, paraffin wax, and soy wax. Beeswax is a popular choice for candles, with a history dating back to the Middle Ages. It is naturally produced by honey bees and then processed in factories. Paraffin wax, also known as petroleum wax, is derived from petroleum, coal, or oil shale. It was first created by German chemist Karl (or Carl) von Reichenbach in 1830 and revolutionized candle-making due to its clean burning and low cost. Soy wax, on the other hand, is a more modern innovation, created using the hydrogenation process with soybean oil.
Waxes are organic compounds that consist of long aliphatic alkyl chains. They can be synthesized by both plants and animals, with beeswax being a well-known example of an animal-derived wax used in candles. Natural waxes often contain unsaturated bonds and functional groups such as fatty acids, alcohols, ketones, and aldehydes. However, synthetic waxes like paraffin wax are typically made up of homologous series of long-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons (alkanes or paraffins) that lack these functional groups.
Paraffin wax, a common type of wax used in candles, is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules. Each hydrocarbon molecule contains between 20 and 40 carbon atoms, following the general formula CnH2n+2. The presence of these hydrocarbons gives paraffin wax its distinct characteristics. It is solid at room temperature, melting at temperatures above approximately 37°C (99°F) and boiling at over 370°C (698°F).
The process of burning a candle involves the combustion of wax, which is primarily composed of hydrocarbons. As the flame heats the wax, it vaporizes and breaks down these hydrocarbons into molecules of hydrogen and carbon. These vaporized molecules are drawn into the flame, where they react with oxygen from the air. This reaction produces heat, light, water vapor (H2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2). The heat generated is sufficient to melt more wax and sustain the combustion process until the fuel is depleted or the heat source is removed.
The structure of the candle flame is also worth noting. It typically has four zones: the blue zone at the base, a small dark orange-brown section above it, a large yellow region, and a faint outside blue edge known as the veil. The blue zone is oxygen-rich, and it is here that the hydrocarbon molecules vaporize and break apart into hydrogen and carbon atoms. The hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water vapor, while some of the carbon burns to form carbon dioxide.
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Candle combustion
Candlelight has been a source of fascination for centuries, and scientists continue to conduct experiments to understand the principles of candle combustion. Candles are primarily made of paraffin wax, a hydrocarbon derived from crude oil, and they produce light and heat through a process of combustion.
When a candle is lit, the heat of the flame melts the wax near the wick, which is then drawn up by capillary action. This liquid wax is vaporised, turning into a hot gas. The heat breaks down the hydrocarbon molecules into hydrogen and carbon atoms. These vaporised molecules react with oxygen in the air, resulting in the creation of heat, light, water vapour, and carbon dioxide. The combustion process is sustained as the heat radiates back and melts more wax, continuing until the fuel is exhausted or the heat source is removed.
The flame of a candle has distinct zones, each with its own characteristics. At the base is a blue zone, rich in oxygen, where the hydrocarbon molecules vaporise and break apart into hydrogen and carbon. The hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water vapour, while some carbon burns to form carbon dioxide. Above this is a small dark orange-brown section with limited oxygen, where various forms of carbon continue to break down and form hardened carbon particles. These particles, along with the water vapour and carbon dioxide, are heated to approximately 1000 degrees Celsius as they rise.
In the yellow zone, the formation of carbon soot particles increases, and as they rise further, they ignite, emitting a full spectrum of visible light. The yellow colour is perceived by the human eye due to the dominance of the yellow portion of the spectrum during carbon ignition. Near the top of the flame, the soot particles oxidise at a temperature of about 1200 degrees Celsius. The outer blue edge, known as the veil, extends from the base of the flame up the sides of the flame cone.
The combustion process of a candle is a delicate balance, and any disruption in the amount of air or fuel supplied to the flame can cause flickering or flaring. Incomplete combustion results in the escape of unburned carbon particles, known as soot, from the flame. Additionally, when a candle is blown out, the wick releases a stream of white smoke, which is vaporised paraffin wax that can reignite if exposed to a flame.
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Candle flame colours
The colour of a candle flame is usually yellow, but it can sometimes appear to be a different colour. The yellow colour is due to the carbon particles in the flame, which ignite and emit a full spectrum of visible light. The yellow portion of the spectrum is the most dominant when the carbon ignites, so the human eye perceives the flame as yellowish.
The colour of a candle flame can vary depending on the type of wax used and the presence of certain chemicals. For example, beeswax candles tend to burn with a more yellow flame, while paraffin wax candles may produce a more white flame. Additionally, the presence of certain metals or salts in the wax or wick can cause the flame to burn with a different colour. For example, copper chloride can produce a blue flame, while strontium can result in a red flame.
Some companies sell candles that burn with coloured flames, such as the ColorFlame candles, which burn in brilliant hues of red, green, blue, orange, and purple. These candles likely contain small amounts of metal salts or other chemicals that cause the flame to burn with a particular colour.
It is worth noting that the colour of a candle flame can also be influenced by the environment in which it is burning. For example, in an environment with low oxygen levels, the flame may appear more orange or brown. Additionally, in microgravity conditions, such as those experienced in space, a candle flame takes on a spherical shape instead of the typical teardrop shape seen on Earth.
While coloured candle flames can be fascinating to observe, it is important to exercise caution when using them. Some coloured flame candles may release smoke containing unburned soot particles or chemicals that could be harmful if inhaled. Therefore, it is always a good idea to ensure proper ventilation when burning any type of candle.
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Candle wicks
Wicks are typically made from cotton, which is braided to make the wick curl over and be completely consumed. Cotton wicks are commonly used for beeswax candles, as the cotton is braided and primed with a wax coating, making it easy to handle. These wicks are also metal-free, with no zinc, lead, or other metals, ensuring a safe and clean burn.
Different types of wicks are available, including ECO, CD, and LX series. ECO wicks, for instance, are flat and coreless, designed for soy wax and lower-melting-point paraffin waxes. They offer a clean burn and minimal mushrooming, making them ideal for container candles. On the other hand, CD wicks, also known as Stabilo wicks, are self-trimming and suitable for both paraffin and soy wax candles. They provide a consistent and strong flame, making them a popular choice for container candles.
The diameter of the container or pillar mould is another important factor in wick selection. It determines the wick size required to achieve an even melt pool. A wick that is too small may result in unmelted wax, while a larger wick can cause excessive sooting and an overly large flame.
Additionally, the fragrance and dye load of the candle should be considered. Candles with a high fragrance or dye content may require a larger wick size for proper burning. It is recommended to conduct a burn test to determine the appropriate wick size based on the specific combination of wax, container, fragrance, and dye used.
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Frequently asked questions
Candle wax is covalent.
Candle wax is made from hydrocarbons, which can be derived from animal, vegetable, or petroleum sources. Common types of candle wax include paraffin wax, beeswax, soy wax, palm wax, gels, and synthesized waxes.
The heat of the flame vaporizes the liquid wax, breaking down the hydrocarbons into molecules of hydrogen and carbon. These vaporized molecules react with oxygen from the air to create heat, light, water vapour, and carbon dioxide.
The upward movement of warm air around the flame creates a convection current, giving the flame its elongated or teardrop shape. In microgravity conditions, where gravity is minimal, candle flames take on a spherical shape.
The blue area at the base of the flame is oxygen-rich and is where hydrocarbon molecules vaporize and break down into hydrogen and carbon atoms. The dark orange-brown section above it has relatively little oxygen, and is where carbon particles form and rise, emitting light as they ignite. The yellow region is the most visible part of the flame due to the dominance of the yellow portion of the spectrum when carbon ignites.
