Chloe Adams
Candles have been a source of light and heat for centuries, with the earliest known use of candles dating back to the Paleolithic period. Over time, the materials used to make candles have evolved from animal fat and plant fibres to beeswax and whale oil. In the Middle Ages, beeswax candles were introduced in Europe and were considered a luxury item due to their high cost. The use of beeswax candles was mostly limited to the church and the wealthy, while the common people used oil lamps or cheaper alternatives like tallow candles. The price of candles fluctuated over time, and they were often taxed heavily, making them even more expensive for the poor.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Types of wax used in the Middle Ages | Animal tallow, beeswax, spermaceti |
| Burning qualities of beeswax | Burns pure and clean, without producing a smoky flame, sweet smell |
| Burning qualities of animal tallow | Foul, acrid odor |
| Who used beeswax candles in the Middle Ages? | Wealthy individuals, Christian churches |
| Who used animal tallow candles in the Middle Ages? | Common household candle for Europeans |
| Who used animal tallow candles outside Europe in the Middle Ages? | Most commoners in the Middle East |
| Cost of candles in the 18th century | A family of the middling sort would need to buy about 2.5 pounds of candles per week on average, costing about sixpence per pound of candles |
| Cost of lighting the palatial home of the Marquis de la Borde | Annual expense of more than 28,000 livres |
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What You'll Learn
Beeswax candles were expensive and used by the wealthy
Beeswax candles were a significant improvement over tallow candles, which were made from animal fat and produced a smoky flame and a foul, acrid odour. Beeswax candles, on the other hand, burned cleanly and emitted a pleasant, sweet smell. They were widely used for church ceremonies in Europe during the Middle Ages, and they were also the dominant material for candle-making in the Middle East during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates. However, beeswax candles were expensive, and their use was generally limited to the wealthy.
In Roman Italy, beeswax candles were expensive, and oil lamps were the most common source of illumination. However, candles were regularly given as gifts during Saturnalia and were also used in Christian churches for their decorative, symbolic, and ceremonial purposes. In early modern Syria, candles were in high demand by all socioeconomic classes because they were customarily lit during marriage ceremonies.
The expense of beeswax candles is further highlighted by the fact that even the most prosperous gentry used them sparingly, only on grand occasions when they wanted to impress. Lighting a candle was likened to burning money, and the expression "the game's not worth the candle" originated from the idea that playing a dull or low-stakes card game was not worth the cost of the candles needed to see one's hand. The candle tax in the 18th century also contributed to the expense, as Adam Smith noted in 1776 that taxes on candles, among other commodities, increased the expense for the sober and industrious poor.
The high cost of beeswax candles is also evident in the spending habits of the elite. For example, the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil spent 1.2 million silver dirhams annually on candles for his royal palaces. Similarly, in the 18th century, it was estimated that it would cost more than 28,000 livres to light and heat the palatial home of the Marquis de la Borde, a wealthy Parisian financier.
While beeswax candles were expensive, they were considered a luxury item, and their use was a sign of wealth and status. They were valued for their clean burn, sweet smell, and long-lasting quality. However, it is important to note that even the wealthy used tallow candles on occasion to keep expenses down, as tallow candles were much cheaper than beeswax or whale oil alternatives.
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Tallow candles were common and cheaper than beeswax
Tallow candles, made from rendered animal fat, were a common household item in medieval Europe. They were cheaper than beeswax candles, which were considered a luxury item. While tallow candles were accessible to most, the very poor could not afford them.
The use of tallow for candle-making dates back to ancient times, with evidence of its use in the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. Tallow candles were likely introduced in Europe during the Roman period and remained a common source of light until the modern era. In the Middle Ages, candlemaking became a guild craft in England and France, with chandlers going door-to-door to make candles from kitchen fats.
Beeswax candles, on the other hand, were introduced to Europe during the Middle Ages. They burned more cleanly and emitted a pleasant fragrance compared to tallow candles. Due to their superior qualities and the religious symbolism of bees and beeswax in Christianity, beeswax candles were widely used in church ceremonies. However, because of their high cost, only the wealthy could afford to burn them in their homes.
The price of candles in medieval times is not readily available, but we can infer that tallow candles were more affordable than beeswax candles. In the 18th century, for example, tallow candles were priced within the range of a charwoman's budget, while beeswax candles were taxed at eight times the rate of tallow, making them even more expensive.
In summary, tallow candles were the standard lighting source for most Europeans during the Middle Ages, while beeswax candles were a luxury item used by the church and the wealthy. The availability and affordability of tallow candles made them a common household item, contributing to their widespread use during this period.
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Spermaceti candles were costly and never widely accessible
In the Middle Ages, candles were primarily made from tallow, or animal fat, and beeswax. Beeswax candles were a luxury item, widely used for church ceremonies, but few individuals other than the wealthy could afford to burn them in their homes. Tallow candles, on the other hand, were the common household candle for Europeans.
The introduction of spermaceti candles in the 18th and 19th centuries marked a significant change in candlemaking. Spermaceti is a wax obtained by crystallizing sperm whale oil. Like beeswax, spermaceti did not produce a foul odour when burned and emitted a brighter light. It was also harder than beeswax or tallow, making it ideal for summer heat.
However, despite their advantages, spermaceti candles were costly and never became widely accessible. The growth of the whaling industry in the late 18th century brought this new variety of candles to the market, but their expense remained high. While prices fluctuated, spermaceti candles remained a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy.
In contrast to the expensive spermaceti and beeswax candles, tallow candles were relatively inexpensive. Even the cheaper alternatives of tallow candles, oil lamps, or rushlights were used occasionally by the upper classes to keep expenses down, as candles were preferred for their cleaner burn and less offensive smell.
The expense of candles was further exacerbated by taxes. In the 18th century, candle taxes were raised regularly, increasing the cost for those of lower socioeconomic status. As such, candles were a significant expense, and lighting them was likened to "burning money".
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Rushlights were the cheapest form of lighting
In the Middle Ages, candles were the most common artificial light source. The type of candle used often reflected the social status of the user. Beeswax candles, for example, were considered the noblest form of lighting due to their pleasant fragrance and bright, calm light. However, they were complex and expensive to make, so they were primarily used in churches and by wealthy families. The process of making beeswax candles required great skill: the wax had to be melted and purified before being poured around a wick or shaped by repeatedly dipping the wick into the liquid wax. The resulting candle burned longer and more evenly than other varieties.
Tallow candles, made from animal fat, were the cheaper and more widespread alternative. They were easier to make but burned faster, produced more soot, and emitted an unpleasant smell. Even the cheaper alternatives of tallow candles, oil lamps, or rushlights were still occasionally used by the upper classes to keep down the expense of candle lighting.
Rushlights, in particular, were the simplest and cheapest form of lighting in the Middle Ages. They were not particularly bright, but they served their purpose. Torches were also used to light larger rooms and outdoor areas. They were made by wrapping a wooden stick with strips of cloth soaked in pitch or resin, or by using bundles of straw or reeds soaked in flammable substances.
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Taxes on candles increased their expense
Candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax in Europe from the Roman period until the modern era. Beeswax candles were introduced in Europe during the Middle Ages, and they were considered a luxury item due to their high cost. The cost of beeswax candles was driven up by the fact that they were taxed at eight times the rate of tallow. These taxes contributed to the overall expense of candles, as noted by Adam Smith in 1776: "As all those four commodities [salt, leather, soap, and candles] that are real necessaries of life, such heavy taxes upon them must increase somewhat the expense of the sober and industrious poor, and must consequently raise more or less the wages of their labour."
The tax on candles was regularly raised, which made them even more expensive for those who relied on them for lighting. While the very poor may not have been able to afford candles at all, even those of a higher social status had to be mindful of their candle usage. Mary Johnson, in her 1775 book on household management, suggested that a middle-class family would need to purchase around two and a half pounds of candles per week, costing them about sixpence per pound.
The high cost of beeswax candles meant that few individuals other than the wealthy could afford to burn them in their homes. Tallow candles, made from rendered animal fat, were the common household candle for Europeans. These candles were cheaper than beeswax candles but still carried a cost that some may not have been able to afford.
The introduction of spermaceti in the late 18th century brought about the first major change in candlemaking since the Middle Ages. Spermaceti, derived from sperm whale oil, was a hard wax that did not produce a repugnant odor when burned and provided a brighter light than tallow or beeswax. However, it is unclear if the introduction of spermaceti made candles more accessible to the general public, as prices for candles fluctuated over time but never became widely affordable.
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Frequently asked questions
Beeswax candles, which were introduced in Europe during the Middle Ages, were expensive and only the wealthy could afford to burn them in their homes. Tallow candles, made from animal fat, were the common household candle for Europeans.
Oil lamps were the most widely used source of illumination in Roman Italy, but candles were common and regularly given as gifts. Rushlights were another cheaper alternative to candles.
Yes, there were two types of wax in medieval Europe: animal tallow, which was widely used in secular buildings, and beeswax, which was used exclusively in churches.
