Chloe Adams
In the early 1800s, pioneers made candles using the dipping method. This involved dipping a wick made from cotton or linen into melted tallow or animal fat. The process was repeated until the candle was the desired size. Candles made from tallow gave off an unpleasant odour, so pioneers also made candles from bayberry wax, wax myrtle, or whale oil. These candles were more durable and gave off a pleasant smell. In the mid-1800s, the discovery of paraffin wax and the use of stearin to harden candles transformed candle-making, making it possible to mass-produce candles that were neater, longer-lasting, less expensive, and less smelly.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Earliest use of candles | Ancient Egyptians soaked pithy core of reeds in animal fat |
| Candle with a wick | Ancient Egyptians in 3,000 B.C. |
| Candle development | Romans dipped rolled papyrus in beeswax or tallow |
| Chinese candles | Molded in paper tubes with rice paper wicks and indigenous insect wax |
| Japanese candles | Made from tree nut wax |
| Indian candles | Made by boiling cinnamon tree fruit |
| Western candles | Made from animal fat (tallow) |
| Middle Ages improvement | Beeswax candles introduced in Europe |
| Common household candle | Europeans used tallow candles |
| Colonial contribution | American colonial women boiled bayberry bush berries for wax |
| Whaling industry impact | Spermaceti whale oil wax became available in the 18th century |
| Standard candles | Made from spermaceti wax |
| 19th-century developments | Discovery of stearic acid, introduction of steam distillation, and industrial manufacturing techniques |
| Paraffin candles | Invented in the 1850s using coal |
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What You'll Learn
The 'dipping' method: wicks were dipped in animal fat
The dipping method was a common way of making candles in colonial times, when each household made its own candles, usually once a year. The average household needed around 400 candles a year, so this was a huge job. The process began with the crafting of the wick, using thin pieces of cotton or linen. The wick was then dipped repeatedly into melted tallow (animal fat), with time to cool and harden between dips, until the candle was the desired size. The candles were then allowed to harden, the wicks were trimmed, and the candles were ready to be used.
Tallow was widely available and affordable, being derived from the fat of domesticated animals. However, its distinctive odour didn't always make for a pleasant aroma. Sheep tallow was the most desirable, while pig tallow, which had a very bad smell, was used by those who couldn't afford beef or sheep tallow.
The development of moulds and the use of wooden moulds in the early 1800s allowed candles to be made much faster, and the candles were uniformly shaped. This innovation led to the establishment of candle-making businesses, with some makers travelling around and taking their moulds and equipment with them, and others setting up in one location and selling their candles.
In the mid-19th century, the whaling industry brought the first major change in candlemaking since the Middle Ages, when spermaceti—a wax obtained by crystallising sperm whale oil—became available in large quantities. Spermaceti did not produce a repugnant odour when burned, and it produced a significantly brighter light. It was also harder than tallow or beeswax, so it wouldn't soften or bend in hot weather.
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Beeswax candles: a sweet-smelling but expensive option
Beeswax candles were introduced in Europe during the Middle Ages, and they were considered a luxury item due to their high cost. Unlike animal-based tallow, beeswax burned cleanly and emitted a sweet honey scent instead of a foul, acrid odour. However, beeswax was not very accessible, and only the wealthy could afford candles made from it for daily lighting.
In Colonial America, pioneers made their own candles once a year, coinciding with the autumn slaughter of animals for meat. They used animal fat (tallow) from sheep, beef, or pigs, with sheep tallow being the most desirable due to its better smell. The pioneers would dip cotton wicks into melted tallow, allowing time for the wax to cool and harden between dips.
Beeswax candles, on the other hand, were made by rolling sheets of beeswax. This method produced candles with a sweet honey smell that burned cleanly. However, beeswax was not a common option for pioneers due to its high cost and low availability.
Today, beeswax candles can be made at home by melting beeswax and pouring it into a mould with a wick. The addition of coconut oil helps the candle burn slower, and essential oils can be added for extra fragrance. Beeswax candles are a healthier alternative to paraffin candles as they do not release carcinogens and offer a brighter, cleaner flame.
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Spermaceti: a waxy substance from whales' heads
The name 'sperm whale' comes from the waxy substance called spermaceti found in their heads. Medieval Latin 'sperma ceti' translates to ''whale sperm', as the substance was initially believed to be whale semen due to its appearance. Spermaceti is a liquid wax present in the head of the sperm whale, primarily found in the spermaceti organ and junk, which can flow as a clear fluid at body temperature but solidifies into a whitish wax at cooler temperatures.
The process of extracting spermaceti involves pulling the carcass alongside the ship, cutting off the head, and pulling it on deck. Whalers then cut a hole in it and bail out the raw spermaceti with a bucket. The harvested matter is stored in casks to be processed back on land. A large whale can yield as much as 500 US gallons (1,900 litres) of spermaceti.
Spermaceti has been extracted by whalers since the 17th century for human use in cosmetics, textiles, and candles. It forms brilliant white crystals that are hard but oily to the touch and are devoid of taste or smell, making it very useful as an ingredient in cosmetics, leatherworking, and lubricants. It was also used in making candles of a standard photometric value, in the dressing of fabrics, and as a pharmaceutical excipient, especially in ointments.
The growth of the whaling industry in the late 18th century brought the first major change in candlemaking since the Middle Ages, when spermaceti became available in quantity. Spermaceti wax did not elicit a repugnant odour when burned and produced a significantly brighter light. It was also harder than tallow or beeswax, so it wouldn't soften or bend in the summer heat. The first 'standard candles' were made from spermaceti wax.
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Stearin: a chemical that made candles burn longer
Candles have been a source of light for centuries, with ancient civilisations using various forms of natural fats, tallow, and waxes to create them. In colonial times, candle-making was an annual chore for households, with each home making its own candles, usually from animal fat or tallow. However, these candles did not burn very well and emitted unpleasant odours.
The search for better candle alternatives led to the discovery of stearin, a valuable additive that enhances the properties of candles. Stearin, also known as stearic acid, is derived from animal or vegetable sources, including tallow, palm oil, and coconut oil. It was first discovered in the 19th century by French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul, who found a way to extract stearic acid from animal fatty acids.
Stearin is a natural wax that offers several benefits in candle-making. Firstly, it increases the burning time of candles, allowing them to burn longer. This makes it ideal for pillar candles or votives that are meant to be burned for extended periods. Secondly, stearin provides opacity and hardness to the wax, preventing small cracks and making the candles more durable. Additionally, stearin improves the colouring of candles, making the colours more intense and vibrant.
One of the key advantages of using stearin is its sustainability. As a natural and biodegradable product, stearin is derived from renewable and ethical sources, such as RSPO-certified palm oil. It is also non-toxic, making it safer for people with respiratory issues or allergies. Unlike paraffin wax, which has a lower melting point and is considered more flammable, stearin has a higher melting point, resulting in a brighter, longer-lasting flame.
Today, stearin is a popular choice for candle makers, providing a natural and eco-friendly alternative to traditional waxes. Its unique properties, including a longer burn time, improved hardness, and brighter flame, make it a versatile option for creating high-quality candles.
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Paraffin wax: candles could be mass-produced from this
Candles have been a source of light and played a role in religious ceremonies for thousands of years. The Ancient Egyptians used rushlights or torches by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat, and the Romans developed wicked candles by dipping rolled papyrus in melted tallow or beeswax.
In the Middle Ages, beeswax candles were introduced in Europe, burning cleanly and emitting a pleasant smell, in contrast to the smoky and foul-smelling tallow candles. However, beeswax was expensive and only accessible to the wealthy. Candlemaking became a guild craft in England and France by the 13th century, with chandlers making candles from kitchen fats or selling their own candles from shops.
In Colonial America, candle-making was an essential chore, with each household producing their own candles from tallow about once a year. The average household required around 400 candles annually. These candles, however, did not burn well, emitted odours, and produced poor light. Colonial women discovered that boiling the berries of bayberry bushes yielded a sweet-smelling wax, but the process was tedious and the resulting candles were soft and did not fare well in hot weather.
The whaling industry in the late 18th century brought about a significant change in candlemaking. Spermaceti, a wax derived from sperm whale oil, became available in quantity. Spermaceti candles burned cleanly, produced a bright light, and were harder than tallow or beeswax. In the 1820s, French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul discovered how to extract stearic acid from animal fatty acids, leading to the development of stearin wax, which burned cleanly and was durable.
The introduction of paraffin wax in the 19th century marked a pivotal moment in the mass production of candles. Paraffin, derived from petroleum, coal, or oil shale, is a soft, colourless solid with a high melting point. Chemist James Young's patent to produce paraffin from coal, along with new machines, enabled the inexpensive and widespread production of high-quality candles. Paraffin wax could be used to make 1500 candles an hour, and its clean-burning properties and low cost made it a superior alternative to tallow candles.
While the advent of electric lighting reduced the reliance on candles, they remain popular today for decorative, symbolic, and ceremonial purposes.
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Frequently asked questions
Pioneers made candles from tallow (animal fat) or beeswax. Tallow candles were made from the fat of cows, sheep, and pigs, with sheep tallow being the most desirable due to its more pleasant smell. Beeswax candles were generally reserved for the wealthy as beeswax was expensive and not widely available.
Pioneers made candles using the dipping method. A wick made from cotton or linen was repeatedly dipped into melted tallow, with time to cool and harden between dips. This process was repeated until the candle was the desired size.
In addition to the dipping method, candles could also be made by pouring wax or tallow over a wick, shaping wax around a wick by hand, or using moulds. In the 19th century, industrial manufacturing techniques were introduced, allowing for the mass production of candles.
