Chloe Adams
Candles have been used as a source of light for over 5,000 years, with the earliest use attributed to the Ancient Egyptians. In the Middle Ages, candles were made from beeswax and tallow, with tallow being the more common household candle due to its cheaper cost. Beeswax candles were considered a luxury item, widely used for church ceremonies and by the wealthy, as they burned cleanly and emitted a pleasant smell. The price of candles was regulated by candle-makers' guilds in urban areas of Europe, and they were also taxed, making them even more expensive for the general population.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Primary material | Tallow (animal fat) |
| Alternative materials | Beeswax, whale fat, plant fibres, oakum |
| Period of use | Middle Ages |
| Region | Europe |
| Producers | Candle makers (Chandlers) |
| Producers' Guilds | Tallow chandlers' guilds |
| Use | Lighting, religious ceremonies, gifts |
| Users | Commoners, churches, elites |
| Affordability | Expensive for commoners, affordable for elites |
| Price determinants | Material, scent, size, weight |
| Taxation | Taxed at eight times the rate of tallow |
| Price fluctuation | Varied over time |
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What You'll Learn
Beeswax candles were expensive
Beeswax was the dominant material used for candle-making in the Middle East during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates. It was often imported from long distances; for example, candle makers from Egypt used beeswax from Tunis. As in Europe, these candles were fairly expensive, and most commoners used oil lamps instead.
In Europe, candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax from the Roman period until the modern era. Tallow was made from rendered animal fat, while beeswax burned pure and clean, without producing a smoky flame. It also emitted a pleasant sweet smell rather than the foul, acrid odour of tallow.
Beeswax candles were considered a luxury item and occupied a considerable part of the total purchase of individual local (parish) churches as well as richer churches. They were also taxed at eight times the rate of tallow, making them even more expensive for the average person.
While tallow candles were the common household candle for Europeans, beeswax candles were still considered a luxury item and were often used by the wealthy to impress on grand occasions.
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Tallow candles were cheaper
Tallow candles, made from animal fat, were the most common type of candle used in households during the Middle Ages. They were significantly cheaper than beeswax candles, which were considered a luxury item. Beeswax candles burned with a pure and clean flame, without the smoky flame and foul odour associated with tallow candles. This made them highly desirable, but their expense meant that only the wealthy could afford them.
Beeswax candles were widely used in church ceremonies, and they held religious symbolism in Christianity. The sweet smell and clean burn of beeswax were seen as signs of purity, and they were exclusively used by the church. In contrast, tallow candles were more accessible to the general public. They were produced by candlemakers, known as chandlers, who would go from house to house creating candles from kitchen fats.
The price of tallow candles was stipulated by candle-making guilds, which existed in more urbanised parts of Europe. These guilds, composed of tallow chandlers, also regulated the activity of their members. Tallow candles were not without their drawbacks, as their foul odour and smoky flame made them less desirable than beeswax candles.
The use of tallow candles extended beyond the Middle Ages, and they continued to be a cheaper alternative to beeswax and spermaceti candles in the 18th century. Spermaceti, derived from sperm whale oil, was a significant improvement over tallow, as it burned without a repugnant odour and produced a brighter light. However, tallow candles remained a more affordable option for those who could not splurge on the more expensive varieties.
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Commoners used oil lamps
In the Middle Ages, candles were made from tallow (animal fat) and beeswax. Beeswax was expensive and burned with a clean, pure flame, emitting a sweet smell. Tallow candles, on the other hand, were cheaper but produced a foul, acrid odour. Beeswax candles were used by the wealthy and for church ceremonies, while tallow candles were the common household candle for Europeans.
Oil lamps were also a popular alternative to candles. Primitive oil lamps, where a lit wick rests in a pool of oil or fat, were used from the Paleolithic period, and pottery and stone lamps from the Neolithic period have been discovered. Oil lamps were the most widely used source of illumination in Roman Italy, and they continued to be used in the Middle Ages, especially by commoners who could not afford expensive candles.
In the Middle East, during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates, beeswax was the dominant material for candle-making, often imported from distant places like Tunis. Here, too, most commoners used oil lamps, while elites spent large sums on expensive candles. For example, the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil spent 1.2 million silver dirhams annually on candles for his palaces.
Even in the 18th century, when tallow candles were more readily available, beeswax candles were still a luxury, taxed at eight times the rate of tallow. Only the rich could afford to use them regularly, and even the most prosperous gentry used them sparingly, except on grand occasions.
Thus, throughout history, commoners often resorted to oil lamps as a more affordable alternative to candles, which could be quite expensive, especially those made from beeswax.
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Guilds controlled candle-making
In the Middle Ages, candle-making became a guild craft in England and France. By the 1500s and 1600s, candle-makers' guilds existed in the Safavid capital of Isfahan. In addition, some English towns and boroughs had a guild of tallow chandlers (candle makers made of animal tallow) in the Later Middle Ages. These guilds controlled the activity of guild members through ordinances and stipulated the basic price, size, and weight of candles.
Guilds were formed to protect the interests of candle makers and to regulate the production and sale of candles. They ensured that members adhered to specific standards and practices, such as the quality and pricing of candles. By joining a guild, candle makers gained access to resources, knowledge, and a network of fellow craftsmen. Guilds also provided a level of protection and stability for their members, as they often had exclusive rights to produce and sell candles in certain regions.
The formation of candle-making guilds had a significant impact on the candle-making industry. It standardised the production process, ensuring a certain level of quality and consistency in the candles produced. Guilds also helped to establish and maintain fair prices for candles, protecting both the candle makers and consumers.
In addition to regulating the candle-making craft, guilds also contributed to the social and economic fabric of the communities they served. Candle makers, however, had a relatively low social position in Safavid Iran, comparable to barbers, bathhouse workers, fortune tellers, bricklayers, and porters.
The development of guilds also influenced the availability and accessibility of candles to the general public. With the guild's control over production and pricing, candles may have become more widely available and affordable, particularly for those who relied on candles for lighting and ceremonial purposes.
Overall, the establishment of candle-making guilds in the Middle Ages played a crucial role in shaping the industry and ensuring the availability and accessibility of candles during that period.
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Church ceremonies used beeswax
Beeswax candles have been used in Christian churches since the end of the 3rd century, and they continue to be used in Catholic liturgical ceremonies today. Beeswax was the dominant material for candle-making in the Middle East during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates, and it was often imported from far away. In Europe, beeswax candles were a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy.
Beeswax candles were used in Christian churches from the early days of the religion, and they played an important role in Catholic ceremonies and rituals during the Middle Ages. The Catholic Church established strict guidelines for the production of beeswax candles during this period, requiring that they be made from pure beeswax and blessed by a priest before use.
The use of beeswax candles in the Catholic Church is steeped in symbolism. The natural light produced by burning beeswax is seen as a symbol of the light of Christ, and the sweet scent is believed to represent the presence of the Holy Spirit. Beeswax is also significant because it comes from virgin bees, symbolising the virgin birth of Christ. In addition, the community is represented by beeswax because it takes a hive of bees to make it.
Beeswax candles are also practical for church use because they burn evenly and slowly without dripping, making them long-lasting. They are used in a variety of liturgical ceremonies, including the Mass, the Liturgy of the Hours, Confirmation, and Holy Orders. The Paschal candle, a large beeswax candle, is lit during the Easter Vigil to symbolise the resurrection of Christ.
Today, the Catholic Church requires liturgical candles to be made with at least 51% beeswax, though many still opt for 100% beeswax candles for special occasions.
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Frequently asked questions
Beeswax candles were expensive and only the wealthy could afford them. Tallow candles, made from animal fat, were the common household candle for Europeans.
Unlike tallow, beeswax burned cleanly and emitted a pleasant smell rather than a foul odour.
Rushlights were the cheapest form of lighting. They were made by dipping the 'pith' from inside a rush in melted animal fat. However, they produced very little light and were smelly.
Yes, the candle tax was raised regularly. Beeswax candles were taxed at eight times the rate of tallow.
Yes, there were candle makers' guilds in Europe during the Middle Ages. By the 13th century, candlemaking had become a guild craft in England and France.
