Brooke Martin
Candles are made from wax, or another flammable solid substance, and have been used for over two millennia. For most of history, candles were made from tallow (animal fat) or beeswax. In the 19th century, candles were also made from stearin (animal fats) and paraffin wax. Today, paraffin wax is still the most commonly used candle wax, but candles can also be made from microcrystalline wax, beeswax, gel, or some plant waxes such as palm, carnauba, bayberry, or soybean wax. Natural waxes such as soy, rapeseed, coconut and beeswax are popular choices for those wanting candles that burn cleanly without the worry of indoor air pollution.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Wax Type | Paraffin wax, beeswax, soy wax, palm wax, gels, synthesized waxes, coconut wax, microcrystalline wax, gel wax, stearin wax, tallow, spermaceti, plant waxes |
| Wick Type | Cotton, hemp, wood |
| Burning Quality | Some candles produce smoke, while others burn slowly and produce a smoke-free flame |
| Scent | Some candles are scented with essential oils or other fragrances |
| Colour | Some candles are coloured |
| Eco-Friendliness | Natural candles are eco-friendly, biodegradable, and have a lower melting point, leading to a longer burn time |
| Health Concerns | Paraffin wax candles may release volatile organic compounds and pollutants |
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What You'll Learn
History of candle wax
Candles have been used as a source of light for over two millennia, and were a significant form of indoor lighting until the invention of other types of light sources. They were also used in early religious ceremonies, with several Biblical references to candles, and the Jewish Festival of Lights, Hanukkah, dating back to 165 B.C.
The earliest use of candles is often attributed to the Ancient Egyptians, who made rushlights or torches by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat. In the Roman period, candles were made from tallow and beeswax, with the latter being more expensive and therefore reserved for the wealthy. Oil lamps were the most widely used source of illumination in Roman Italy.
Beeswax was introduced to Europe in the Middle Ages, and was a significant improvement on tallow, burning cleanly and without the foul odour of tallow. However, it was still expensive, and tallow remained the everyday candle wax used in Europe and the Americas until the 18th century.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the growth of the whaling industry led to the development of spermaceti wax, derived from sperm whale oil. Spermaceti burned cleanly and was harder than tallow or beeswax, so it wouldn't melt in the summer heat. In the 19th century, French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul discovered how to extract stearic acid from animal fatty acids, leading to the development of stearin wax, which was hard, durable, and burned cleanly.
By the end of the 19th century, candles were increasingly made from paraffin wax, which had been introduced in the 1850s when chemists learned how to efficiently separate the naturally-occurring waxy substance from petroleum. Paraffin wax burned cleanly and consistently, and was more economical to produce, making candles affordable for the masses.
Today, paraffin wax remains the most commonly used candle wax, although other types of waxes such as beeswax, soy wax, palm wax, and coconut wax are also used.
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Common candle waxes
For most of history, candles were made from tallow (animal fat) or beeswax. In the 19th century, candles were also made from spermaceti, a waxy substance derived from sperm whales. This development spurred demand for the substance.
Today, most candles are made from paraffin wax, a byproduct of petroleum refining. However, there are several other common types of candle wax.
Beeswax is still used around the world, although in smaller quantities than paraffin. It has been used in candle production for thousands of years. It is considered a luxury item due to its high expense.
Soy wax is another popular candle wax. It is a vegetable wax made from oil produced by soybeans. It is a renewable resource, with a high melting point, and it burns cleanly and slowly.
Coconut wax is also used in candle production. It is a sustainable, non-toxic, and hypoallergenic wax with a high burn temperature. However, it is more expensive than soy and paraffin wax and softens easily in warm temperatures.
Stearin candle wax is largely limited to European use. It is based on extracting stearic acid from animal fatty acids.
Other types of wax used in candle-making include palm wax, gels, synthetic waxes, and natural waxes such as rapeseed and plant waxes (palm, carnauba, bayberry, or soybean wax).
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How paraffin wax is made
Paraffin wax, also known as mineral wax, is a by-product of the oil industry. It is derived from petroleum, coal, or oil shale and consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing 20 to 40 carbon atoms. The production of paraffin wax can be broken down into the following steps:
Removing the Oil
The first step in making paraffin wax is to remove the oil from the slack wax, a mixture of oil and wax that is a by-product of lubricating oil refining. The oil is separated by crystallization, which is often achieved by heating the slack wax and mixing it with a solvent before cooling it. As the mixture cools, the wax crystallizes out of the solution, leaving only oil.
Filtering
Once the wax has crystallized, it is separated from the oil using a filtration or centrifugation process. This results in two streams: solid (wax plus some solvent) and liquid (oil and solvent).
Distillation
After the solvent is recovered by distillation, the resulting products are called "product wax" or "press wax" and "foots oil".
Hydrofinishing or Hydrotreating
The dewaxed oil is treated with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst to remove impurities and enhance the stability and quality of the wax.
Bleaching
The wax is then mixed with activated bleaching earth or clay and filtered to remove any remaining colour or impurities, resulting in a clear wax.
Additional Processing
The wax may be further processed to modify its crystal properties, typically by adding branching to the existing carbon backbone chain. This is usually done with additives such as EVA copolymers, microcrystalline wax, or forms of polyethylene. These additives result in a modified paraffin with a higher viscosity, smaller crystalline structure, and modified functional properties.
Final Product
The paraffin wax is now ready to be sold in either liquid or solid form. It can be used in a variety of applications, including lubrication, electrical insulation, crayons, and candles.
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Natural candle waxes
Beeswax
Beeswax is a traditional and natural candle wax that has been used for thousands of years. It is produced by honeybees and has a golden colour and a subtle honey-like aroma. Beeswax is a durable wax that burns longer than most other types, making it ideal for tapers, pillars, and votives. It is also hypoallergenic and renewable. However, beeswax candles were historically expensive and mainly used by the elite and churches.
Soy Wax
Soy wax is a natural, plant-based wax made from hydrogenated soybean oil. It is a popular choice for candle makers due to its eco-friendly properties, smooth texture, and excellent scent retention. Soy wax burns slowly and cleanly, making it ideal for container candles. It is also known for its strong fragrance retention, especially for subtle, natural fragrances.
Coconut Wax
Coconut wax is a natural candle wax derived from coconut oil. It is known for its luxurious and eco-friendly qualities. Coconut wax has a creamy texture and excellent scent throw, making it perfect for high-end container candles. It is a favourite among boutique candle makers for its incredible fragrance performance. Coconut wax candles also burn slowly and produce a smoke-free flame.
Rapeseed Wax
Rapeseed wax, also known as canola wax, is another natural candle wax option. It provides superb fragrance retention, scent throw, and extended burn time.
Palm Wax
Palm wax is a vegetable-based wax derived from palm oil. It is one of the two vegetable-based candle waxes developed for commercial use in the late 1990s. Palm wax is used in candle-making, particularly in the US market, and is known for its ability to burn cleanly.
These natural candle waxes offer a range of benefits, from improved fragrance retention to longer burn times and eco-friendly properties. They provide candle makers with sustainable and natural alternatives to synthetic waxes.
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Health concerns
Burning candles can contribute to poor indoor air quality, especially in spaces that are not well-ventilated. Candles release hydrocarbons, chemical compounds consisting of hydrogen and carbon, into the air. Some of these hydrocarbons, such as benzene, formaldehyde, and toluene, are known to be harmful to human health. For example, benzene is linked to a higher risk of cancer, according to the American Cancer Society, and formaldehyde has been associated with an increased cancer risk by the National Cancer Institute.
Additionally, burning candles can release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter, which can be dangerous to human health. VOCs are found in many household items, including paints, cleaning products, and fuels, and humans are regularly exposed to them. However, exposure to VOCs can cause headaches, irritation to the eyes, nose, or throat, nausea, and even damage to the liver, kidneys, or central nervous system. Particulate matter is a mixture of extremely small liquid droplets and particles that can enter the lungs, and extended exposure to particulate matter has been linked to heart and lung problems.
Some candles may also contain lead-cored wicks, which can produce dangerous emissions and cause lead poisoning. While many countries have taken action to prevent the use of lead and metal-cored candle wicks, it is important to be aware of this potential health risk.
The type of wax used in candles can also impact the amount and kind of emissions generated. Paraffin wax, for example, is made from petroleum and tends to generate greater emissions than other waxes. Candles made from natural materials, such as beeswax or soy wax, are generally considered to be healthier alternatives as they release fewer emissions.
Overall, while there are some health concerns associated with burning candles, the risk is probably not as great as one might think. In well-ventilated spaces, the effects of burning candles are minimal. However, it is important to be aware of the potential health risks and take steps to minimize exposure to any harmful chemicals.
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Frequently asked questions
Candles are made of wax and a wick. The wax is typically paraffin, a byproduct of petroleum refining, but can also be beeswax, microcrystalline wax, gel, or plant waxes such as palm, carnauba, bayberry, or soybean wax. The wick is usually made of cotton, hemp, or wood.
Natural candles are made of wax derived from natural, renewable sources, such as soy, rapeseed, coconut, or beeswax. These candles are non-toxic, biodegradable, and burn cleanly without producing indoor air pollution.
Scented candles can be made from a variety of waxes, including paraffin, coconut, and soy. The scent in these candles can be derived from natural sources like essential oils or from artificial fragrances.
There is some debate about the toxicity of candles. While no candle wax has been shown to be toxic or harmful to human health, paraffin wax candles have been found to release volatile organic compounds into the atmosphere when lit, which may increase cancer risk. Natural waxes are a good alternative for those wanting to avoid potential toxins.
