Brooke Martin
Candles have been used for lighting and decorative purposes for centuries, with their production evolving from natural fats and beeswax to more complex mixtures. The process of candle-making involves creating a mixture of wax, fragrance, and a wick, with the most common wax types being paraffin, soy, and coconut. Paraffin wax, derived from petroleum refining, is a mixture of hydrocarbons from crude oil, while soy and coconut waxes offer renewable and environmentally friendly alternatives. The science behind candles involves the combustion of the wick, which melts and ignites the wax, releasing heat, light, and fragrance.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Candle wax composition | Paraffin wax, soy wax, coconut wax, beeswax, microcrystalline wax, gel (a mixture of polymer and mineral oil), plant waxes (palm, carn) |
| Candle wick composition | Lead core (rarely used since the 1970s), zinc or zinc alloy (industry standard), specially treated paper, cotton |
| Candle combustion by-products | Heat, light, water vapour, carbon dioxide, soot |
| Candle flame structure | Blue base (oxygen-rich), small dark orange-brown section, large yellow region |
| Candle fragrance | Top, heart, and base notes; strength varies with cold and hot throw |
| Candle burning duration | Depends on wax type; soy wax burns slowly |
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What You'll Learn
The history of candle wax
Candles have been used for over two millennia, and while they are no longer a major source of light, they continue to be popular for functional, symbolic, and aesthetic purposes. Early candles were made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax. In Europe, from the Roman period until the modern era, candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax. Beeswax candles were expensive and their use was limited to the wealthy, so oil lamps were more commonly used in Roman times.
In the Middle Ages, beeswax candles were introduced in Europe, offering a purer, cleaner-burning, and sweet-smelling alternative to animal-based tallow. Beeswax was often imported from long distances; for example, candle makers in Egypt used beeswax from Tunis. In the Middle East, during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates, beeswax was the dominant material used for candle-making. In China, beeswax candles were common in the Tang and Sung dynasties, and wax from the Chinese tallow tree or Chinese wax derived from insects was also used.
The first "standard candles" were made from spermaceti wax, a wax obtained by crystallizing sperm whale oil, which became available in quantity during the growth of the whaling industry in the late 18th century. Spermaceti wax burned without a repugnant odour, produced a bright light, and was harder than tallow or beeswax, making it more suitable for warmer climates.
In the 1820s, French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul discovered how to extract stearic acid from animal fatty acids, leading to the development of stearin wax, which burned cleanly and was hard and durable. In the mid-19th century, paraffin wax was introduced after chemists learned how to efficiently separate and refine the naturally occurring waxy substance from petroleum. Paraffin wax was affordable, burned cleanly and consistently, and was more economical to produce than other candle fuels, making candles accessible to the masses.
In the 1990s, new types of candle waxes were developed, including soybean wax and palm wax. Today, candles are also made from coconut wax, microcrystalline wax, gel (a mixture of polymer and mineral oil), and plant waxes such as palm and soy. These waxes offer various benefits, such as renewability, sustainability, and non-toxicity, contributing to the ongoing popularity and development of candles.
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The process of making candles
Candles are made from a mixture of wax and a wick. The process of making candles involves several steps, and there are many variations in the materials and methods used.
Firstly, candle makers must select the type of wax they wish to use. Traditional materials include tallow (animal fat), beeswax, and spermaceti (from sperm whales). In modern times, candles are often made with paraffin wax, a byproduct of petroleum refining, or plant-based waxes such as soy, coconut, palm, or a combination of these. The choice of wax depends on factors such as sustainability, affordability, and burn quality.
Once the wax type is chosen, it needs to be melted. This is typically done using a double boiler, which involves placing a melting pot containing the wax into a larger pot of water heated to a medium temperature. The wax is heated to around 185°F, ensuring it does not overheat. Candle makers may also add colour or dye to their wax at this stage to create visually appealing candles.
While the wax is melting, the wick can be prepared. Wicks are typically made from paper, cotton, zinc, or wood, with thicker wicks suited for larger candles. The wick is centred and secured to the bottom of the container using glue or a wick sticker. It is then wrapped around a clothespin or stick to keep it centred while the wax is poured.
Once the wax has melted, candle makers can add essential oils or fragrances to create scented candles. The wax mixture is stirred to distribute the scent evenly, then allowed to cool slightly before pouring.
The melted wax is then carefully poured into the chosen container, ensuring the wick remains centred. Any shifts in the wick's position can be corrected while the wax is still hot and liquid.
Finally, once the wax has hardened, the wick can be trimmed, and the candle is ready for use or decoration.
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The science of candle flames
The combustion of a candle is a self-sustaining process. When the wick of a candle is lit, the heat melts a small amount of solid fuel (the wax), which vaporises and combines with oxygen in the air to form a flame. This flame then melts the top of the wax, which moves upward through the wick via capillary action to be continually burnt, maintaining a constant flame.
The flame's colour can be divided into three sections: the blue area at the base, a small dark orange-brown section above it, and the large yellow region at the top. The blue zone, rich in oxygen, is where hydrocarbon molecules vaporise and break down into hydrogen and carbon atoms. The hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water vapour, while some carbon burns to form carbon dioxide. The orange-brown region, with less oxygen, is where various carbon forms continue to break down and form small, hardened carbon particles. As they rise, along with the water vapour and carbon dioxide, they are heated to around 1000 degrees Celsius.
The yellow portion of the spectrum becomes dominant when the carbon ignites, causing the human eye to perceive the flame as yellowish. As soot particles oxidise near the top of the flame's yellow region, the temperature rises to approximately 1200 degrees Celsius. The outermost blue edge, known as the veil, extends from the blue zone and is the hottest part of the flame, reaching up to 1400 degrees Celsius. This blueness occurs due to direct contact with the oxygen in the air.
The heat generated by a candle's combustion is radiated in all directions, with about a quarter of the energy released as heat. This heat melts more wax to sustain the combustion process until the fuel is depleted or the heat is removed. Initially, the flame may flicker and smoke, but it eventually stabilises, burning cleanly and steadily in a quiet teardrop shape.
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The different types of candle wax
Candles have been made from various materials over the centuries, including different types of wax. The type of wax used in a candle affects everything from its appearance and fragrance to its burn time and environmental impact.
Paraffin Wax
Paraffin wax is one of the most popular types of candle wax, especially for highly scented candles. It is derived from the refining of crude oil, specifically from the byproducts of petroleum refining. It is known for its affordability and versatility, as it comes in various melting points, allowing candle makers to create different types of candles. It is also excellent at carrying fragrances, which has made it a popular choice for scented candles.
Soy Wax
Soy wax is another popular choice for candle makers. It is derived from soybeans and is a more environmentally friendly option compared to paraffin wax. Soy wax offers a slow, steady burn and can be used straight or blended with other natural oils or mixed with paraffin to form a parasoy wax. It is also versatile in terms of the vessels it can be used in, such as tealights and votive candles. However, soy wax does not hold fragrance as well as other waxes and can be more challenging to work with.
Beeswax
Beeswax is a natural wax that has been used for candle-making for centuries. It is known for its hardier nature, making it ideal for crafting freestanding pillar candles. However, beeswax candles tend to be more expensive.
Coconut Wax
Coconut wax is a newer addition to the types of wax used for candles. It is made by extracting the oil from coconut meat and then hydrogenating it to turn it into a solid wax. It is highly sustainable, non-toxic, hypoallergenic, and burns cleanly, producing little to no soot. It is also a good option for holding fragrance and can be blended with other waxes to create high-quality candles.
Palm Wax
Palm wax is a natural wax that gives candles a unique, crystalline, and feathered texture. It burns slowly and cleanly, creating visually appealing textures that add a decorative touch to the candle. However, the main concern with palm wax is that it contributes to the deforestation of palm trees.
Rapeseed Wax
Rapeseed wax is a natural wax derived from rapeseed oil. It is a good choice for those looking to minimise their environmental impact when choosing different types of wax for candles. It is sustainable, vegan-friendly, and burns cleanly, with minimal soot production. It is also suitable for blending with other waxes to achieve a desired consistency.
Gel Wax
Gel wax is a combination of mineral oil and polymer resin, which gives it a soft and gelatin-like consistency. It allows for transparency, making it possible to create candles with embedded objects or layered designs. It has a higher melting point than wax candles, but it can overheat and cause thin glass vessels to crack or break.
In addition to these main types of candle wax, blends of different waxes are also available, offering a balance of performance and eco-friendliness.
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The environmental impact of candles
Candles have been a source of light and ambience for centuries, but their impact on the environment is a growing concern. While candles may seem like a minor indulgence, their production, use, and disposal contribute to our carbon footprint in significant ways. The environmental impact of candles is influenced by various factors, from the materials used to their emissions and waste generation.
Materials and Production
The type of wax used in candles has a significant environmental impact. Paraffin wax, derived from petroleum, is the most common wax used in candle-making due to its affordability and efficient production techniques. However, paraffin wax is a non-renewable resource, contributing to the depletion of finite fossil fuels. Additionally, the process of refining crude oil to produce paraffin wax requires energy and resources, further increasing its environmental footprint.
Alternative waxes like soy, coconut, beeswax, and apricot wax are more environmentally friendly options. Soy wax, made from hydrogenated soybean oil, is a renewable and biodegradable resource. Coconut wax is also highly sustainable, non-toxic, and hypoallergenic. It is produced by extracting and hydrogenating oil from coconut meat, resulting in a solid wax that burns cleanly with minimal soot and emissions. Beeswax, a natural byproduct of honey collection, is another renewable resource as long as beekeeping practices are sustainable and ethical.
However, it is important to consider the potential drawbacks of these alternative waxes. For example, soybeans grown in monoculture systems can lead to soil erosion and deforestation, while beeswax may need to be imported from long distances, increasing their carbon footprint.
Emissions and Air Quality
Burning candles, especially those made from paraffin wax, releases harmful volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene and toluene. These compounds contribute to indoor air pollution and pose potential health risks. Proper ventilation is crucial to mitigating the impact of candle emissions on indoor air quality. Opening windows and doors allows fresh air to circulate, diluting the concentration of pollutants. Additionally, limiting the number of candles burned simultaneously can help reduce the overall emission load.
Waste and Disposal
The disposal of candle waste can also have environmental implications. Paraffin wax is not biodegradable and can persist in the environment for an extended period, contributing to waste accumulation. On the other hand, soy wax is biodegradable, reducing its environmental impact when disposed of properly. Reusing candle containers and recycling old wax can also help minimize waste.
Overall Impact
While candles may seem like a small part of our daily lives, their environmental impact is undeniable. By selecting candles made from sustainable and eco-friendly waxes, burning them sparingly and with proper ventilation, and disposing of them responsibly, consumers can make a positive impact and contribute to a more sustainable future.
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Frequently asked questions
Candles are made up of three essential components: the wick, wax, and fragrance. Historically, candles were made from tallow (animal fat) or beeswax. Modern candles are made from a variety of materials, including paraffin wax, soy wax, coconut wax, beeswax, microcrystalline wax, gel, and plant waxes.
The heat of the flame vaporizes the liquid wax, turning it into a hot gas. This gas rises through the wick and combines with oxygen in the air to form a flame. The flame then melts the top of the solid wax, which moves upward through the wick via capillary action to be continually burned, maintaining a constant flame.
The science of candles involves the study of heat, light, and combustion. The flame of a candle is a result of the combustion of vaporized wax molecules, which react with oxygen to create heat, light, water vapour, and carbon dioxide. The colour of the flame is perceived as yellowish due to the dominance of the yellow portion of the spectrum when carbon ignites.
