Brooke Martin
Before the invention of candles, ancient people used open fires, torches, and oil lamps to provide light at night. Candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax in Europe from the Roman period until the modern era, when spermaceti (from sperm whales) was used in the 18th and 19th centuries. In colonial times, candles were made from tallow, the fat of sheep and cows, or beeswax. Tallow candles were inexpensive and common but burned unevenly, smoked, and emitted a strong odour. Today, most candles are made from paraffin wax, which was developed in the 1860s.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Time Period | Colonial times (pre-19th century) |
| Materials Used | Tallow (sheep and cow fat), beeswax, whale fat, plant materials, animal fat |
| Wick Materials | Cotton, hemp, milkweed fibres, rushes |
| Techniques | Dipping, drawing, pouring, moulding |
| Use | Lighting, religious ceremonies, special occasions |
| Limitations | Expensive, uneven burning, unpleasant odour, summer heat melting |
| Alternatives | Open fire, torches, resinous wood, oil lamps |
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What You'll Learn
Tallow candles were the most common
The use of tallow candles dates back to ancient times, with evidence of their use by the Romans and even earlier civilisations. In the colonial era, tallow candles were a necessity due to the lack of modern lighting options. They were often used sparingly, and colonial households led a frugal existence to manage the expense of lighting.
To create tallow candles, wicks were coated in fat and alternately dipped and dried until they reached the desired size. This process was time-consuming and created a less-than-ideal lighting source. However, tallow candles were a significant improvement over the earlier open fires, torches, and oil lamps used in ancient times.
Colonial women made important contributions to candlemaking. They discovered that boiling the berries of bayberry bushes produced a sweet-smelling wax that burned cleanly. However, the tedious extraction process led to the decline in popularity of bayberry candles.
The growth of the whaling industry in the late 18th century brought about a significant change in candlemaking. Spermaceti, a wax derived from sperm whale oil, became available in larger quantities. Spermaceti candles did not produce a repugnant odour, burned brighter, and were harder than tallow or beeswax, making them more resistant to heat.
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Spermaceti candles were odourless and bright
Colonial Americans relied on candles as their primary source of artificial light. They had to choose between wax and tallow candles, with the latter being the least expensive and most common. However, tallow candles, made from sheep and cow fat, had several drawbacks, including uneven burning, excessive smoke, and a strong odour.
Spermaceti candles, on the other hand, offered a superior alternative. These candles were made from a waxy substance found in the head cavities of sperm whales. Spermaceti was extracted by whalers as early as the 17th century and gained popularity in the 18th century due to its unique properties.
One of the most notable features of spermaceti candles was their odourless quality. The spermaceti wax, when burned, produced minimal smoke and odour, in stark contrast to tallow candles. This made spermaceti candles highly desirable, especially for those seeking a cleaner and more pleasant lighting experience.
In addition to being odourless, spermaceti candles were also known for their bright flame. They burned brighter and cleaner than other candles, providing a superior source of illumination. This brightness was a significant advantage, especially for tasks requiring detailed work or additional lighting, such as sewing.
The unique chemical composition of spermaceti, primarily composed of esters of fatty acids and fatty alcohols, allowed it to be solid at room temperature and easily melted when heated. This made spermaceti candles versatile and convenient for various lighting needs. However, the growing demand for these candles had devastating consequences for sperm whale populations, leading to increased whaling and a significant drop in their numbers.
As awareness of the negative environmental impact of whaling grew, the demand for spermaceti candles decreased. By the 19th century, alternative materials, such as paraffin, stearin, soy wax, palm wax, and coconut wax, gained popularity, contributing to the decline of the spermaceti candle market and the whaling industry. Today, the use of spermaceti wax in candles has largely diminished, replaced by more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives.
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Ancient candle-making methods
The ancient Romans are generally credited with developing wicked candles by dipping rolled papyrus repeatedly in melted tallow or beeswax. The resulting candles were used for lighting their homes, aiding travellers at night, and in religious ceremonies. In the Roman period, candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax in Europe. Beeswax was a byproduct of honey collection and was collected after honey was extracted and purified by boiling it in seawater several times.
In the early periods, candles may have been made from plant materials dipped in animal fat. Ancient Greeks offered the moon goddess, Artemis, moon-shaped honey cakes lit by little torches or candles. This is believed to be the origin of the tradition of putting candles on birthday cakes. The Greeks also used oil lamps and may have adopted candle use from the Romans.
In the 13th century, candlemaking became a guild craft in England and France. The chandlers would go from house to house, making candles from kitchen fats or making and selling their own candles from small shops. In the 18th century, the whaling industry brought the first major change in candlemaking since the Middle Ages, with the introduction of spermaceti—a wax obtained by crystallising sperm whale oil. Spermaceti did not elicit a repugnant odour when burnt and produced a significantly brighter light. It was harder than tallow or beeswax and did not soften or bend in the summer heat.
In the 19th century, candlemakers began to fashion wicks out of tightly braided strands of cotton. This made the wicks self-trimming or self-consuming as they curled over and were completely incinerated in the flame. In the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales, developing a commercially viable method of production.
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Wicks were made from cotton or hemp
Wicks have been made from a variety of materials throughout history. In colonial times, wicks were traditionally made from cotton or loosely spun hemp or tow – broken fibres used for twine or yarn. These bundles of fibres were simply twisted together, which burned very poorly, needing constant maintenance to stay lit.
The ancient Romans are generally credited with developing the wicked candle by dipping rolled papyrus repeatedly in melted tallow or beeswax. The resulting candles were used to light their homes, aid travellers at night, and in religious ceremonies.
The ancient Greeks offered to the moon goddess Artemis moon-shaped honey cakes said to be lit by little torches or candles, and this has been proposed as the origin of the tradition of putting candles on birthday cakes. However, cakes with any resemblance to modern Western birthday cakes only arose by around 1600 in Europe.
In the 19th century, candlemakers began to fashion wicks out of tightly braided (rather than simply twisted) strands of cotton. This technique makes wicks curl over as they burn, maintaining the height of the wick and therefore the flame. Because much of the excess wick is incinerated, these are referred to as "self-trimming" or "self-consuming" wicks.
In America, colonists found that the fibres of the milkweed burned cleaner than those made of cotton when twisted. Wicks were also made from rushes, known as rush-lights. The common or Juncus rush was most desired. The outer bark was stripped, leaving the pitch bare.
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Beeswax candles were popular in Europe
In colonial times, candles were primarily made from tallow, the fat from cows or sheep. Tallow candles were inexpensive and common but burned unevenly, smoked, and emitted a foul odour. As such, they were not used for church ceremonies or by the wealthy.
Beeswax candles, on the other hand, were popular in Europe, with evidence of their use by the ancient Greeks and Romans. Beeswax was also the dominant material used for candle-making in the Middle East during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates. The use of beeswax for candles in Europe is thought to have originated in Italy and the Roman provinces in the early Middle Ages, with the earliest evidence of beekeeping dating back to the 10th century.
Beeswax candles were favoured for their higher quality, sweet smell, and use in religious rituals. However, due to their expense, they were restricted to the rich, churches, and royal events. The production of beeswax candles involved importing beeswax from long distances, making them fairly expensive. As a result, most commoners used oil lamps instead.
The popularity of beeswax candles in Europe can be attributed to their advantages over tallow candles. Beeswax candles did not produce a repugnant odour when burned, emitted a brighter light, and were harder, preventing them from softening or bending in the summer heat. These qualities made beeswax candles ideal for church ceremonies and the wealthy, who could afford to burn them in their homes.
The use of beeswax for candles in Europe continued until the modern era when other materials, such as spermaceti (from sperm whales) and purified animal fats (stearin), became more commonly used.
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Frequently asked questions
Candles in colonial times were made from tallow (animal fat) or beeswax.
Tallow candles were made by dipping wicks into molten fat or wax repeatedly until they reached the desired size.
Wicks were traditionally made of cotton or loosely spun hemp or tow. These burned very poorly and needed constant maintenance to stay lit.
Yes, in colonial times, candles could also be made from plant materials, boiled cinnamon wax, whale fat, or bayberry bushes.
