Chloe Adams
Candles have been used as a source of light for over 5,000 years, with the earliest use often attributed to the Ancient Egyptians, who made rushlights or torches by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat. However, the first candles with wicks were believed to have been invented by the Ancient Romans, who created them by repeatedly dipping rolled papyrus in tallow or beeswax. Over time, candles were made from various materials, including animal fat, whale fat, plant-based waxes, and beeswax, which was introduced in Europe during the Middle Ages and offered a cleaner, less foul-smelling burn. In the 18th century, the whaling industry led to the widespread use of spermaceti wax, derived from sperm whales, which burned brighter and did not produce a repugnant odour. The discovery of stearic acid in the 19th century further revolutionized candle-making, leading to the development of stearin wax, which remains popular today.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Earliest use of candles | Ancient Egyptians |
| Date of earliest use | 3000 B.C. |
| Composition of the earliest candles | Reeds soaked in melted animal fat |
| First wicked candles | Ancient Romans |
| Composition of the first wicked candles | Rolled papyrus dipped in tallow or beeswax |
| Other early candle-making civilisations | Japanese, Chinese, Indians |
| Composition of early Japanese candles | Wax from tree nuts |
| Composition of early Chinese candles | Wax from insects and seeds |
| Composition of early Indian candles | Wax from boiled cinnamon |
| Composition of early Western candles | Animal fat (tallow) |
| Composition of early European candles | Beeswax introduced in the Middle Ages |
| Composition of early American candles | Boiling bayberries |
| First "standard candles" | Spermaceti wax |
| Composition of Spermaceti wax | Oil from the head of the sperm whale |
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What You'll Learn
The use of animal fat
The Ancient Egyptians, often credited with the earliest use of candles, created rushlights or torches by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat. While these lacked a wick, true wicked candles made from animal fat emerged in Ancient Rome. The Romans are generally acknowledged as the first to develop wicked candles, dipping rolled papyrus repeatedly in melted tallow or beeswax. These candles were used for lighting their homes, aiding travellers at night, and in religious ceremonies.
Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the availability of olive oil decreased in Northern Europe, and tallow candles became prevalent throughout Western Europe. This continued until the 18th century when the whaling industry brought about a significant change. Spermaceti, derived from sperm whales, offered a brighter light, was available in larger quantities, and lacked the foul odour associated with tallow. Thus, it became a popular alternative to tallow, marking the beginning of the transition away from animal-based candles.
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The introduction of beeswax
In Europe, beeswax candles were introduced during the Middle Ages, marking a significant improvement over animal-based tallow candles. Beeswax burned cleanly and pure, without the smoky flame and foul odour associated with tallow. The sweet-smelling beeswax candles were initially expensive, limiting their use primarily to religious ceremonies within the Church. These "Church Candles" became known for their superior qualities, and their high demand among the Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the wealth of wax candle makers.
Beeswax candles played a significant role in colonial America, where women led innovations in candle-making. They discovered that boiling bayberries produced a clean-burning, sweet-smelling wax, further enhancing the appeal of beeswax as a candle material. The introduction of whaling in the 18th century marked the first significant change in candle-making since the Middle Ages, as spermaceti wax from sperm whales offered a brighter and less repugnant alternative to tallow.
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Spermaceti from whales
The use of candles dates back more than 5,000 years, with the earliest known use attributed to the Ancient Egyptians who made rushlights or torches by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat. The Ancient Romans are generally credited with developing wicked candles by dipping rolled papyrus in melted tallow or beeswax.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, with the growth of the whaling industry, spermaceti—an oil derived from the head cavities of sperm whales—became a widely used substance for candle-making. Spermaceti is a waxy substance that was initially believed to be whale semen due to its appearance. Whalers would extract up to four tons of spermaceti from each whale, which would then be crystallized to form a wax.
Spermaceti candles were favoured because, like beeswax, they did not produce a repugnant odour when burned and emitted a significantly brighter light. The wax was also harder than tallow or beeswax, making it less susceptible to softening or bending in hot weather. These qualities made spermaceti ideal for creating the first "standard candles". The unit "candlepower", used to measure light intensity, was based on the light produced by a single, pure spermaceti candle.
The process of making spermaceti candles involved crystallising the oil at a temperature of 6°C (43°F) and treating it with pressure and a chemical solution of caustic alkali. This resulted in the formation of brilliant white crystals that were hard yet oily to the touch and devoid of taste or smell. These crystals were then processed into candles.
However, by the end of the 19th century, the development of alternative energy sources like kerosene and social pressure to end predatory whaling led to a decline in the use of spermaceti. Today, whale-friendly alternatives are available, allowing whale populations to slowly recover.
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Stearin from animal fat
The use of candles dates back to around 3,000 B.C., when the Ancient Egyptians used papyrus reeds dipped in animal fat and lit them as torches. In the 19th century, French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul discovered that animal tallow, which was used to make candles at the time, was a compound of two fatty acids: stearic acid and oleic acid, combined with glycerin. By removing the glycerin from the tallow compound, Chevreul invented stearin, derived from the Greek word "stear", which means tallow.
Stearin is a fatty acid that was historically derived from animal fat. It has been widely used as an ingredient in candles, soaps, and cosmetics. In the context of candle-making, stearic acid and stearin are interchangeable terms referring to the same product. Chemically, stearic acid is a component of stearin. Stearin candles have a high melting point, resulting in a longer burning time compared to other types of waxes. They also produce less soot and combustion products, making them a safer and more environmentally friendly option.
The use of stearin in candles gained popularity during the Industrial Revolution due to its discovery by Michel-Eugène Chevreu. Its utilisation became widespread after World War II, as it was highly sought after for its high melting point. Stearin is often added to candle wax to enhance certain properties. For example, it can make the wax more opaque, harder, and increase the burning time of the candle. It also colours very well and makes the colours more intense.
Today, stearin is typically derived from plant-based sources such as palm or coconut oil, rather than animal fats. This evolution has reduced the negative environmental and health impacts associated with its production. Stearin is now considered a safe and sustainable option for candle-making, with no known health risks or contraindications to its use.
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Paraffin from coal and oil shales
The use of candles dates back to ancient times, with the earliest known use attributed to the Ancient Egyptians, who created rushlights or torches by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat. However, the first true candles with wicks were likely developed by the Romans, who dipped rolled papyrus in melted tallow or beeswax. Over time, various civilisations experimented with different materials for candle-making, including wax extracted from tree nuts, boiled cinnamon fruit, whale fat, and beeswax.
In the mid-19th century, Scottish chemist James Young made a significant contribution to the evolution of candle-making by successfully distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales. Here is a more detailed overview of the process and its impact:
Coal and oil shales have been utilised as fuel sources for centuries, with ancient civilisations using shale oil for various purposes, such as paving roads, caulking ships, and even in warfare by coating arrows with shale oil to create flaming projectiles. However, it was James Young who revolutionised the use of these resources for candle-making.
Young, born in Glasgow in 1811, began experimenting with the distillation of cannel coal at low heat. Through his experiments, he produced a fluid resembling petroleum, which he named "paraffine oil." This fluid, when treated similarly to seep oil, yielded products similar to those derived from petroleum. One of the key outcomes of his process was the production of solid paraffin wax from coal.
In 1850, Young partnered with E.W. Binney & Co. in Bathgate, West Lothian, establishing the world's first commercial oil works. This venture utilised locally mined torbanite, lamosite, and bituminous coal to manufacture a range of products, including paraffin for fuel use. Young also took out a US patent in 1852 for the production of paraffin oil through the distillation of coal.
The discovery of oil shales in Broxburn, West Lothian, in 1858, further expanded Young's operations. Oil shales, a type of sedimentary rock rich in kerogen, provided an alternative source for paraffin wax production. By heating the oil shales, Young was able to extract the hydrocarbons within, which served as a substitute for traditional petroleum or natural gas.
The paraffin wax derived from coal and oil shales offered several advantages for candle-making. It burned cleanly, leaving no unpleasant odour, and produced a bluish-white wax. Additionally, paraffin candles were inexpensive and of high quality, making them accessible to a wider range of people.
However, early coal- and petroleum-derived paraffin waxes had a low melting point, which presented a challenge. This issue was eventually resolved with the introduction of stearin, discovered by Michel Eugène Chevreul. Stearin, derived from purified animal fats, raised the melting point of the paraffin wax, making it more suitable for candle-making.
The commercialisation of paraffin wax from coal and oil shales marked a significant advancement in the history of candle-making. It contributed to the decline of the whaling industry as a source of candle wax and provided a more affordable and accessible option for lighting during the Industrial Revolution.
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Frequently asked questions
The first candles are often attributed to the Ancient Egyptians, who made rushlights or torches by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat.
The ancient Romans are generally credited with developing the wicked candle before the Egyptians. They were made by dipping rolled papyrus repeatedly in melted tallow or beeswax.
The first standard candles were made from spermaceti wax, which comes from the oil found in the head of the sperm whale.
The first mass-produced candles were made of paraffin wax, processed by distilling the residue left after crude petroleum was refined.
