Jessie Taylor
Candles were commonplace in Europe during the Middle Ages, with tallow, made from animal fats, being the standard material used. The production of candles was regulated by guilds, which also stipulated their basic price, size, and weight. Beeswax was the preferred material for candle-making due to its lack of unpleasant odour, but its use was restricted to the wealthy and religious institutions due to its high cost. In the 18th century, the growth of the whaling industry led to the use of spermaceti, a wax derived from sperm whale oil, which became the first candle substance to be available in mass quantities. Further advancements in the 19th century, such as the discovery of paraffin wax and the invention of candle moulds, made candles even cheaper and more accessible.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Time period | Middle Ages (from around 500 AD) |
| Common materials | Tallow, fat from cows or sheep |
| Standard material | Beeswax |
| Common household candles | Tallow candles |
| Used in | Candlemas and Saint Lucy festivities |
| Unpleasant smell | Due to glycerine content |
| Preferred material | Beeswax, due to lack of unpleasant odour |
| Use of beeswax | Restricted to the rich, churches, and royal events |
| Guild craft | In England and France by the 13th century |
| First candle mould | 15th century in Paris |
| Efficient production of candles in moulds | 19th century |
| Dominant material in Middle East | Beeswax |
| First major change in candle-making | Growth of whaling industry in late 18th century |
| First mass-produced candles | 1834 |
| First cheap candles | Paraffin wax in 1850s |
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What You'll Learn
- Tallow candles were the standard household candle for Europeans
- Beeswax was expensive and reserved for the rich, churches, and royal events
- Spermaceti, a substance from sperm whales, was used in the 18th and 19th centuries
- Colza oil and rapeseed oil were cheaper alternatives to beeswax and spermaceti
- Paraffin wax was introduced in the 1850s and was economical to produce
Tallow candles were the standard household candle for Europeans
Beeswax was the preferred alternative to tallow candles, as it did not produce an unpleasant odour when burned. However, beeswax candles were more difficult to obtain, and so their use was mostly restricted to the wealthy, churches, and royal events.
In the 13th century, candlemaking became a guild craft in England and France. The Tallow Chandlers Company of London was formed in about 1300, and in 1456 was granted a coat of arms. The Wax Chandlers Company existed prior to 1330 and acquired its charter in 1484. By 1415, tallow candles were used in street lighting.
The first major change in candlemaking since the Middle Ages came in the late 18th century with the growth of the whaling industry. Spermaceti, a wax obtained by crystallising sperm whale oil, became available in large quantities. Spermaceti was harder than tallow or beeswax, so it wouldn't soften or bend in the summer heat. It also produced a significantly brighter light and did not create a repugnant odour when burned. The first "standard candles" were made from spermaceti wax.
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Beeswax was expensive and reserved for the rich, churches, and royal events
Beeswax candles have been used for thousands of years, with the Ancient Egyptians using beeswax in torches and lamps, and the Romans adopting true candles, likely made from beeswax. Beeswax was the dominant material used for candle-making in the Middle East during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates, and in Europe from the Roman period until the modern era. However, beeswax candles were expensive and their use was often limited to the wealthy, churches, and royalty.
The production of beeswax candles was labour-intensive, requiring the work of thousands of bees to create enough wax for a single candle. As a result, beeswax candles were more expensive than tallow candles, which were made from animal fats and used by ordinary people in their homes. Beeswax was also imported from long distances, further adding to the cost. For example, candle makers in Egypt used beeswax from Tunis.
In the Middle Ages, tallow candles were the common household candle for Europeans, and candlemaking became a guild craft in England and France in the 13th century. Tallow was readily available as it was made from fats saved from the kitchen. However, the smell of tallow candles was unpleasant due to the glycerine they contained. The manufacturing process was so odorous that it was banned in several European cities.
Beeswax, on the other hand, produced a clean-burning flame without an offensive odour. It was also harder than tallow, resulting in a more durable candle. These qualities made beeswax candles desirable, particularly for churches and royal events. The religious symbolism of bees and beeswax as a sign of purity in Christianity further contributed to their use in religious contexts.
The distinction between beeswax and tallow candles became one of class and quality. Beeswax candles were considered the gold standard and were used by the wealthy, while tallow candles were more affordable and accessible to the general population.
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Spermaceti, a substance from sperm whales, was used in the 18th and 19th centuries
The use of candles was commonplace throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. They were made from fats saved from the kitchen or sold in small candle shops. Tallow, fat from cows or sheep, became the standard material used in candles in Europe. However, the unpleasant smell of tallow candles led to their manufacturing process being banned in several European cities. Beeswax was the preferred alternative, but its use was restricted to the rich, churches, and royal events due to its expense.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, spermaceti, a waxy substance found in the head cavities of sperm whales, was used to make high-quality candles. Spermaceti was first purified and then mixed with a small amount of oil and beeswax to create the candle wax. The growth of the whaling industry in the 18th century brought about the first major change in candlemaking since the Middle Ages, as spermaceti became available in large quantities. Spermaceti candles were an improvement over previous candles made from tallow or beeswax, as they burned cleanly, were odourless, and provided a brighter light. They were widely used in homes, churches, and public spaces, and were also essential for lighthouses.
The decline of spermaceti candles began in the mid-19th century with the growing popularity of kerosene lamps and gas lighting. Additionally, the whaling industry faced increasing scrutiny due to ethical and environmental concerns, and the introduction of the Endangered Species Act further limited the availability of spermaceti. By the late 19th century, cheaper and more efficient alternatives like kerosene had replaced spermaceti. While the use of spermaceti in candles declined, it continued to be used in other applications such as cosmetics, leatherworking, and lubricants.
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Colza oil and rapeseed oil were cheaper alternatives to beeswax and spermaceti
The use of candles was commonplace throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. In England and France, candle-making became a guild craft by the 13th century, with the Tallow Chandlers Company of London forming around 1300. Tallow, fat from cows or sheep, was the standard material used in candles in Europe. The unpleasant smell of tallow candles is due to the glycerine they contain. Beeswax was the preferred substance for the production of candles without the unpleasant odour, but its use remained restricted to the rich, churches, and royal events due to its great expense.
By the 18th century, with the growth of the whaling industry, spermaceti, an oil derived from sperm whales, became a widely used substance for candle-making. Spermaceti did not produce a repugnant odour when burned and produced a significantly brighter light. However, by 1800, even cheaper alternatives were discovered in the form of colza oil and rapeseed oil. These oils yielded candles that produced clear, smokeless flames.
Colza oil, also known as non-food-grade rapeseed oil, is derived from Brassica campestris and is widely used in the food industry and biofuel sector, particularly in French-speaking countries like France and Belgium. Rapeseed oil, on the other hand, is the standard term used in international trade, especially in the UK, EU, and Asia, and includes both food-grade and technical-grade variants.
Canola oil, a specific low-erucic acid variety of rapeseed oil, was developed in Canada in the 1970s. It is primarily used in North America and is often linked to GMO production. Canola oil is considered safe by the US Food and Drug Administration and is widely used in the food industry. While colza oil and rapeseed oil offered cheaper alternatives to beeswax and spermaceti, the discovery of paraffin wax in the 1850s further revolutionized candle-making, as it was even more economical to produce and burned cleanly and consistently.
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Paraffin wax was introduced in the 1850s and was economical to produce
The use of candles dates back thousands of years, with the Ancient Egyptians using torches or rushlights made from reeds soaked in melted animal fat. In the Middle Ages, tallow, made from animal fats, was the standard material for candles in Europe. These tallow candles had an unpleasant smell due to the glycerine they contained, and their production was banned in several European cities. The preferred alternative was beeswax, but its expense restricted its use to the wealthy, churches, and royal events.
In the 18th century, the whaling industry grew, and spermaceti, a wax derived from sperm whale oil, became widely used for candle-making. Spermaceti did not produce an unpleasant odour when burned and was harder than tallow or beeswax. However, it was the introduction of paraffin wax in the 1850s that revolutionized candle-making. Paraffin wax, a soft, colourless solid derived from petroleum, was first created by German chemist Karl von Reichenbach in the 1830s. Initially, it was considered a byproduct of the oil-refining process with limited applications. However, in the mid-19th century, Scottish chemist James Young made significant advancements in refining paraffin wax.
Paraffin wax proved to be a boon for candle-making due to several advantageous properties. Firstly, it burned cleanly and consistently, without producing a repugnant odour like tallow candles. Secondly, it was more economical to produce than other candle fuels such as beeswax and tallow. This made paraffin wax accessible and affordable, leading to high demand. The low cost of paraffin wax was a crucial factor in its widespread adoption, and it soon became a staple in candle production, replacing tallow and beeswax.
The only drawback of early paraffin wax was its low melting point, but this issue was swiftly addressed by adding stearic acid, which had become widely available. The production of paraffin wax experienced a boom in the early 20th century due to the growth of the oil and meatpacking industries, which generated paraffin and stearic acid as byproducts. The introduction of the lightbulb in 1879 marked the beginning of a decline in candle-making, but candles regained popularity in the first half of the 20th century due to the increased availability of these byproducts.
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Frequently asked questions
Tallow, fat from cows or sheep, was the standard material used in candles in Europe during the Middle Ages. Beeswax was the preferred substance for its lack of unpleasant odour, but its use was restricted to the rich, churches, and royal events due to its expense.
In the Middle Ages, candle makers (known as chandlers) made candles from fats saved from the kitchen or sold their own candles from within their shops. In England and France, candle-making became a guild craft by the 13th century.
Tallow candles were the common household candle for Europeans. Poor people, who couldn't afford to eat as much meat, would have to buy tallow from the chandler. Rushlights, made by dipping the pith from inside a rush in animal fat, were the cheapest form of lighting.
Candles became cheaper in the 19th century with the invention of a moulded candle production machine, which allowed for mass production. They became even more economical in the 1850s with the introduction of paraffin wax, which burned cleanly, consistently, and was economical to produce.
