Tyler Brooks
Candles have been used as a source of light for thousands of years, but the exact origins of candle-making are unknown. The earliest use of candles is often attributed to the Ancient Egyptians, who made rushlights by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat. The Ancient Romans are generally credited with developing wicked candles before that by dipping rolled papyrus repeatedly in melted tallow or beeswax. In Europe, candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax from the Roman period until the modern era. Beeswax candles were introduced in Europe during the Middle Ages and were used in church ceremonies and by the upper classes due to their expense.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Earliest use of candles | Attributed to the Ancient Egyptians who made rushlights by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat |
| Earliest use of wicked candles | Romans, around 3,000 BC |
| Common household candle for Europeans | Tallow candles |
| Candlemaking became a guild craft in England and France | 13th century |
| First candle mould | 15th century in Paris |
| First major change in candlemaking | 18th century with the growth of the whaling industry |
| First industrialized candles | 1834 |
| First standard candles | Made from spermaceti wax |
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What You'll Learn
The use of tallow candles in Europe
Tallow candles have been used in Europe for centuries, playing a pivotal role in the continent's history and culture. Made from animal fats, typically from cows or sheep, tallow candles were the standard form of lighting in European homes during the Middle Ages. They were also used in churches and monasteries, illuminating religious rituals and enabling monks and scholars to read and transcribe sacred texts, thus contributing to the preservation of knowledge and the development of European culture.
The candle-making profession thrived during this period, with skilled artisans known as chandlers supplying tallow candles to homes, churches, and businesses. The trade was so significant that it contributed to local economies and facilitated the growth of urban centres. By the 13th century, candlemaking had become a guild craft in England and France, with chandlers travelling from house to house to create candles from kitchen fats or selling their wares in small shops.
Tallow candles were not without drawbacks, however. The burning of tallow released an unpleasant odour due to the presence of glycerine, and the candles produced smoke. As a result, beeswax candles, which burned cleaner and emitted a more pleasant scent, were preferred by the upper classes. Beeswax candles were more expensive, however, due to the labour-intensive process of extracting beeswax as a byproduct of honey collection, so tallow candles remained the standard for most Europeans.
Tallow candles continued to be an essential source of light during the Industrial Revolution, illuminating factories and mines. They were also used in Colonial America, where settlers relied on them for lighting and traded them with Native Americans for fur and other goods. Over time, the introduction of gas lighting and eventually electric lights reduced the reliance on candles for illumination, but tallow candles remained significant for their cultural and religious uses.
In the Victorian era, the type of candle one used became a reflection of social status. While the working class continued to use tallow candles, the upper class adopted cleaner-burning and more expensive alternatives like spermaceti (derived from sperm whales) and beeswax, signifying wealth and refinement.
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The introduction of beeswax candles
In the Middle Ages, beeswax candles became a luxury item in Europe, primarily used in Christian churches and by the wealthy due to their high cost. Beeswax was favoured for its ability to burn cleanly without producing a smoky flame, as well as its pleasant scent compared to the foul odour of tallow candles. The use of beeswax candles in church ceremonies is believed to have originated from their association with purity and cleanliness, free from the smoky flame and unpleasant smell of tallow candles.
The production of beeswax candles in Europe may have been influenced by trade along the Silk Road, as well as the reintroduction of beekeeping practices by Arabs in the VIII sec. The dominance of beeswax candles in the Middle East during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates may have also played a role in their introduction to Europe, with candle makers importing beeswax from long distances.
The development of candle-making guilds in England and France during the 13th century further contributed to the production and sale of beeswax candles. The Wax Chandlers Company, formed prior to 1330, specialised in the craft of creating beeswax candles and acquired its charter in 1484. By the 16th century, beeswax candles had become luxury household items among the wealthy, and their use continued to be significant in Christian churches for decorative, symbolic, and ceremonial purposes.
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Spermaceti candles from the 18th century
Candles were commonplace in Europe during the Middle Ages, with tallow candles being the standard household candle. Tallow is fat from cows or sheep. The use of tallow was not without its problems, however, as the manufacturing process was so unpleasant that it was banned in several European cities.
Beeswax was the preferred alternative to tallow, but its use was restricted to the wealthy and for churches and royal events due to its expense.
The growth of the whaling industry in the late 18th century brought about the first major change in candlemaking since the Middle Ages. Spermaceti, a wax obtained by crystallising sperm whale oil, became available in quantity. Spermaceti was harder than tallow or beeswax, so it wouldn't soften or bend in the summer heat. It also produced a significantly brighter light and did not give off an unpleasant odour when burned.
Spermaceti forms brilliant white crystals that are hard but oily to the touch and are devoid of taste or smell. It is created in the spermaceti organ inside the whale's head and may contain as much as 1,900 litres of spermaceti. Hunters in America killed 292,714 whales between 1835 and 1872, and up to four tons of spermaceti could be harvested from each whale.
Spermaceti was also used in cosmetics, leatherworking, and lubricants, as well as in the dressing of fabrics and as a pharmaceutical excipient.
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The development of stearin candles
The use of candles in Europe can be traced back to ancient times, with evidence of their presence in Roman and Greek civilizations. However, the development of stearin candles is a more recent innovation that revolutionized the candle-making industry. Stearin, a substance derived from animal fats, was first discovered and utilized for candle-making in the early 19th century. This discovery marked a significant advancement in the quest for a cheaper and more efficient alternative to the traditional tallow candles.
The process of making stearin candles was pioneered by a French chemist named Michel Eugène Chevreul in the 1820s. Chevreul discovered that by treating animal fats with quicklime and water, he could produce a harder substance that burned more cleanly and efficiently than tallow. He named this substance "stearic acid" and patented the process of making stearin candles in 1825. Stearin candles quickly gained popularity due to their improved quality and performance compared to tallow candles. They produced a brighter and steadier flame, burned slower, and emitted less smoke and unpleasant odor.
As the demand for stearin candles grew, candle makers began to experiment with different sources of fat to produce stearic acid. Whale oil, which was readily available at the time, became a common ingredient in the production of stearin. The use of whale oil contributed to the improvement of candle quality, as it yielded a harder and more stable product. However, the excessive hunting of whales for their oil had a severe ecological impact, driving many whale species to the brink of extinction.
To address the environmental concerns and the declining availability of whale oil, candle makers turned to alternative sources of fat, such as palm oil and coconut oil. These vegetable fats provided a more sustainable and environmentally friendly option for stearin production. The use of palm oil, in particular, became prevalent in the candle-making industry, as it offered similar qualities to whale oil in terms of hardness and burning properties.
Today, stearin candles continue to be valued for their high-quality light and long-burning properties. While the candle-making industry has evolved with the introduction of electric lighting and modern alternatives, stearin candles retain their charm and remain a popular choice for ambiance and decorative lighting. The development of stearin candles played a significant role in the evolution of lighting technology, offering a cleaner and more efficient alternative to ancient candles, and shaping the way we illuminate our spaces today.
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The industrialisation of candle-making
The use of candles in Europe can be traced back to the Roman period, with tallow candles being the most common household candle for Europeans. Tallow is animal fat, and the process of making these candles involved dipping wicks in molten fat or wax, rolling the candle by hand around a wick, or pouring fat or wax onto a wick. In the 14th century, Sieur de Brez introduced the technique of using a mould, but it wasn't until the 19th century that real improvements were made to the efficiency of this production method.
Another significant development in candle-making was the use of spermaceti, a wax obtained by crystallising sperm whale oil. The growth of the whaling industry in the late 18th century brought about the first major change in candle-making since the Middle Ages, as this new type of wax became available in large quantities. Spermaceti was preferable to tallow and beeswax because it was harder and less susceptible to warmer weather, burned brighter, and did not have an unpleasant smell.
In the 1820s, French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul discovered how to extract stearic acid from animal fatty acids, leading to the development of stearin wax. This new type of wax was hard, durable, and burned cleanly, and is still used in Europe today. The increased availability of stearic acid as a byproduct of the oil and meatpacking industries in the first half of the 20th century further contributed to the growth of the candle-making industry.
The development of new materials and techniques, such as the use of soybean wax, coconut wax, and other plant-based waxes, has allowed for more sustainable and environmentally friendly candle-making practices. These alternative waxes burn cleaner, produce less soot, and release fewer toxins into the air. They also have a lower melting point, resulting in longer-lasting candles that can hold more fragrance oil.
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Frequently asked questions
The exact date of when the first candles were made in Europe is unknown. However, the Ancient Romans are generally credited with developing wicked candles before 3000 BC by dipping rolled papyrus in melted tallow or beeswax.
The first European candles were made from tallow, fat from cows or sheep, or beeswax.
The first European candles were made by dipping wicks in molten fat or wax, rolling the candle by hand around a wick, or pouring fat or wax onto a wick.
By the 13th century, candle-making had become a guild craft in England and France, with a French guild documented as early as 1061.
