Chloe Adams
Candles are believed to have been used as a source of light for over 5,000 years, with the earliest use attributed to the Ancient Egyptians, who made rushlights by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted animal fat. The use of candles became more widespread in Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire, when olive oil, the most common fuel for oil lamps, became scarce. In the Middle Ages, candles were made from fats saved from the kitchen, with tallow, fat from cows or sheep, becoming the standard material used. Medieval candlemakers also used beeswax, which burned cleanly and was favoured by the wealthy. Candlemaking became a guild craft in England and France in the 13th century, and by the 19th century, large-scale industrial manufacturing techniques were introduced for mass production.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Time Period | Middle Ages |
| Candle Composition | Fat, tallow, and beeswax |
| Standard Material | Tallow |
| Tallow Source | Cows or sheep |
| Tallow Smell | Unpleasant due to glycerine |
| Tallow Bans | Several European cities due to the smell |
| Beeswax Affordability | Only the rich could afford it |
| Trade Name | Smeremongere |
| Guild Craft | 13th century in England and France |
| Guild Example | Tallow Chandlers Company of London |
| Guild Year | 1300 |
| Wax Chandlers Company Charter Year | 1484 |
| Street Lighting | Tallow candles used in 1415 |
| Mould Usage | 15th century in Paris |
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What You'll Learn
Medieval candle materials
In the Middle Ages, candles were made from a variety of materials, with tallow being the most common. Tallow is fat from cows or sheep and was widely used due to its availability and low cost. However, it produced an unpleasant smell due to the glycerine it contains, which led to its manufacture being banned in several European cities.
Beeswax was another material used for candle-making during the Middle Ages. It was often imported from long distances, such as Egyptian candlemakers using beeswax from Tunis. Beeswax was more expensive than tallow, so only the wealthy could afford candles made from this material. It burned cleanly and had a pleasant scent, making it a desirable alternative to tallow.
In some cases, medieval candlemakers also used kitchen fats saved from cooking. These fats were often collected specifically for candle-making purposes. Additionally, colonial women in America discovered that boiling the berries of bayberry bushes produced a sweet-smelling wax, but the tedious extraction process limited the popularity of these bayberry candles.
The whaling industry's growth in the late 18th century brought about a significant change in candle-making materials. Spermaceti, a wax derived from sperm whale oil, became available in large quantities and was used to make bright, odourless, and hard candles that retained their shape in warm temperatures.
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The craft of candlemaking
Candlemaking in the Middle Ages was a craft that used materials such as fat, tallow and beeswax. Tallow, made from the fat of cows or sheep, was the most commonly used material for candles during this period. This is due to the fact that after the fall of the Roman Empire, olive oil, which was previously the most common fuel for lamps, became scarce in Europe. Tallow was cheap and readily available, although it produced an unpleasant smell due to the glycerine it contains.
Beeswax was also used for candle making, particularly in the Middle East during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates. Beeswax was often imported from far away, such as Egyptian candlemakers using beeswax from Tunis. It was favoured for its clean burn and lack of unpleasant odour, although only the wealthy could afford it.
Candlemaking was a simple process that provided a modest income. In England and France, it became a guild craft by the 13th century, with the Tallow Chandlers Company of London forming around 1300. By the 15th century, candle moulds were introduced, although they were not widely used until the 19th century when improvements were made to the technique.
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Guilds and the trade of chandlers
The emergence of guilds in medieval Europe can be traced back to the evolving economies of western and northern Europe as they emerged from the Dark Ages. Guilds became possible with the emergence and expansion of towns in the 10th and 11th centuries. The growth of towns led to the formation of associations of craftsmen or merchants, known as guilds, which served as protective social clubs for their members.
In the Middle Ages, guilds dominated the trade and economic landscape. They established monopolies over specific trades and industries, setting and maintaining standards for goods and trading practices. Guilds also aimed to stabilize prices and exert control over local governments to further their economic interests.
Candle-making, or chandlery, was one such trade that operated within the guild system. By the 13th century, candlemaking had become a guild craft in England and France, with records of a French guild dating back to 1061. The Tallow Chandlers Company of London, formed around 1300, and the Wax Chandlers Company, which existed prior to 1330, are notable examples of candle-making guilds.
There were two types of chandlers: wax chandlers and tallow chandlers. Wax chandlers, supported by the church and nobility, crafted candles from beeswax, which burned cleanly and had a pleasant aroma. In contrast, tallow chandlers produced cheaper candles from animal fats, resulting in candles that were smoky, odorous, and sometimes dangerous. These were typically sold to the lower classes.
To become a chandler, one had to join a guild and apprentice under a master for several years without pay but with room and board. Upon becoming a master themselves, they were expected to practice their trade and actively participate in the guild's social and charitable activities.
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The standardisation of tallow
Tallow, fat from cows or sheep, became the standard material used in candles in Europe during the Middle Ages. Tallow candles were the common household candle for Europeans, and by the 13th century, tallow candlemaking had become a guild craft in England and France.
Tallow was chosen for candles due to its low cost and long shelf life. Tallow can be stored for extended periods without the need for refrigeration, as long as it is kept in an airtight container to prevent oxidation. However, the smell of tallow candles is unpleasant due to the glycerine they contain. The odour of the manufacturing process was so offensive that it was banned by ordinance in several European cities.
Tallow was also used to make candles in China during the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE). Chinese tallow was made from the fat of the Chinese tallow tree. In India, candles were made using wax from boiling cinnamon.
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Beeswax and other alternatives
Beeswax was a common material used in candle-making during the Middle Ages. It was produced by honey bees using glands in their abdominal segments. Chemically, beeswax is made up of fatty acids and long-chain alcohols. Beeswax burns without producing a repugnant odour, and it can be heated and reused. However, only the rich could afford it.
Beeswax was often imported from long distances. For example, candle makers in Egypt used beeswax from Tunis. In India, wax derived from boiling cinnamon was used specifically for temple candles.
Tallow, made from the fat of cows or sheep, was another standard material used in candle-making during the Middle Ages. It was cheaper than beeswax and was the common household candle for Europeans. However, tallow candles produced an unpleasant smell due to the glycerine they contain. The odour was so offensive that tallow candle manufacturing was banned in several European cities.
In China, candles may have been made from whale fat, beeswax, or wax from the Chinese wax tree, an indigenous insect. Japanese candles may have been made from wax from the Japanese wax tree.
In the 18th century, the whaling industry brought about a major change in candle-making. Spermaceti, a wax derived from sperm whale oil, became available in large quantities. Spermaceti candles burned brighter and did not elicit a foul odour when burned. They were also harder than tallow or beeswax candles, making them more durable in warm temperatures.
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Frequently asked questions
Candles were made from tallow, fat, and beeswax. Tallow was the most commonly used material, made from the fat of cows or sheep. Beeswax was also used, but it was more expensive and only the rich could afford it.
Medieval candlemakers would go from house to house and make candles using fats saved from the kitchen. They would also make and sell their own candles from small shops. Candles were made by dipping or drawing a wick in molten wax or tallow, shaping it by hand by rolling soft wax around a wick, or pouring wax or tallow over the wick.
Yes, candles were commonplace throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. They became more widely used after the collapse of the Roman Empire, which made olive oil—the most common fuel for oil lamps—unavailable throughout Europe.
